Ist International Meeting EAHN | European Architectural History Network | Guimarães, Portugal | June 17-20, 2010
LEARNING ARCHITECTURE:
EARLY MODERN APPRENTICESHIPS IN PORTUGAL
Margarida Tavares da Conceição
Institute for Housing and Urban Renewal / University of Coimbra - Centre for Social Studies,
Portugal
1
1 | professional apprenticeships
This paper explores how architecture was taught in the period when the profession was
still being defined and when the title of ‘architect’ was just starting to be applied to those
who designed buildings. It took some time to organise this professionally-oriented
training, and the process was not without its moments of indecision and contradiction.
Learning architecture required a cluster of skills that included not only training in the ‘art
of drawing’, but also lessons in geometry as well as ‘architecture proper’.
Although the training soon incorporated a theoretical part (understood as the study
of architectural treatises, a necessary cultural requirement for disciplinary autonomy),
this was not enough for professional accreditation. It was complemented by other forms
of training, an aspect which has not always been properly taken into account. In the
example studied here (the Portuguese Royal Court between 1580 and 1640), there was
an institutional framework that regulated access to the profession – as perhaps also
occurred in many other contexts.
This was, then, organized learning, though there was no rigid curriculum and it was
not always divulged in the clearest terms. Although the architecture lesson was valued
as the legitimising component of the discipline, it would seem that successful training did
not depend predominantly on any one aspect. In fact, different methods were used, as
we can see in the complementary relationship that existed between the practical training
or apprenticeship undertaken with the master and the emphasis upon mathematics as
the basis of design (calculating and drawing). This diversity was largely reflected in the
content of the architecture lesson itself, which had begun to move away from the
idealized humanistic model.
1
Translated from the Portuguese by Karen Bennett.
Margarida Tavares da Conceição
IHRU / CES-UC
2 | the first master, FilippoTerzi
This architectural training began operating in around 1594, under the auspices of the
Italian Filippo Terzi (Bologna, 1520 – Lisbon, 1597). He had been contracted by the
Portuguese monarch, King Sebastian (1554-1578),2 and it is known that he
accompanied him on his military expedition to North Africa as sitiador (military
commander) or engenheiro (engineer).3 During the Iberian dynastic union (1580-1640)
that followed the death of the King, Terzi also exercised important functions for Phillip II
in the domain of construction.4
In the charter referring to Terzi’s appointment, the post or office continued to be
called ‘master of works’, although the person himself was sometimes referred to as
architect and sometimes as engineer; indeed, these terms were beginning to become
important for clarifying the professional category of appointees, accompanying the
wording used in the respective charters.5 However, this did not mean that the roles were
definitively distinguished in theory or in practice.
In fact, Terzi was involved with fortifications and hydraulic infrastructures – that is
to say, he performed the work of an engineer. But he was also active as an architect,
making sketches for various buildings. His name appears in connection with a
manuscript bearing designs relating to the function of master in Três lugares de
aprender a Arquitectura (‘Three positions for the learning of Architecture’).
In short, at a crucial moment in the professional definition of the architect, these
three positions reveal some interesting characteristics, precisely due to their lack of
definition Despite having marked the field of architecture, Terzi was not particularly
2
The circumstances under which he came to Portugal, in around 1577, are not known; cf. MOREIRA,
Rafael & SOROMENHO, Miguel – “Engenheiros Militares Italianos em Portugal (séculos XV-XVI)”. In
VIGANÒ, Marino - Architetti e Ingegneri Militari Italiani all’estero dal XV al XVIII secolo. Dall’Atlantico al
Baltico. Roma – Livorno: Istituto Italiano dei Castelli - Sillabe, 1999, II: 117 and 125.
3
He was taken prisoner there and was ransomed in June 1579, cf. VITERBO, Francisco Marques de Sousa
- Dicionário Histórico e Documental dos Arquitectos, Engenheiros e Construtores Portugueses. Lisboa:
Imprensa Nacional - Casa da Moeda, (1899-1922) 1988, III: 94.
4
In 1590, he was appointed Master of the King’s Works and probably also exercised the function of Master
of Fortifications; cf. VITERBO, Dicionário Histórico e Documental dos Arquitectos..., III: 147; MOREIRA,
Rafael – “O Engenheiro-mor e a Circulação das Formas no Império Português». Portugal et Flandres,
Visões da Europa 1550-1680. Lisboa: IPPC, 1992: 103 and 107).
5
VITERBO, Dicionário Histórico e Documental dos Arquitectos..., III: 97; 100.
2
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original; he was the Italian architect, contracted as an engineer, who divulged classical
theory and introduced (or consolidated) the notion of the sketch plan.6
3 | three positions for the learning of architecture
The first institutional training (which initially took the form of three apprenticeship
positions (or places) for the learning of architecture) appeared belatedly and
spasmodically in the form of an architecture lesson. From the somewhat sketchy sources
available, it is clear that this was not an educational establishment in the common sense
of the word. Rather, it involved the institutional creation of places for architecture
apprentices, who were trained by the Master of the Royal Works.
The apprentices received an annual stipend from the Crown, which meant that the
position for the learning of architecture was a kind of traineeship, in which the
apprentices assisted or served ‘in the drawings that were made’ (the most common
expression at the time). Thus, the institutional context was emphasised, not
insignificantly, as the three positions were inserted into the administrative and
hierarchical structure of the pre-modern state, directly overseen by the ombudsman of
the royal works.7 The ‘three positions’ therefore paved the way for employment in the
royal administration, where apprentices were trained to become ‘architecture officials’ in
the service of the king.
This – together with the limited number of places – resulted in the creation of a kind
of ‘architecture school’ (here used in the sense of a methodological tradition transmitted
over time, with all the conservative implications implicit in such continuity). This was also
a ‘school’ in the sense that the places were rigidly passed on, revealing a somewhat
endogamous tendency to give priority to members of the same family.
Learning to draw.
The second important feature concerns the practical training in the art (and the act) of
drawing. On the one hand, basic training continued to centre upon the traditional method
of knowledge transmission, namely learning by doing (that is, helping the master with his
6
GOMES, Paulo Varela - A Confissão de Cyrillo, estudos de História da Arte e da Arquitectura. Lisboa:
Hiena, 1992: 26 and GOMES, Paulo Varela – “Aspectos do classicismo na arquitectura portuguesa dos
séculos XVI e XVII”. In 14,5 Ensaios de História e arquitectura, Coimbra, Almedina, (2003) 2007.
7
In all appointments, the last word was always reserved for the ombudsman of the royal works; cf.
SOROMENHO, Miguel – “A Administração da Arquitectura: o Provedor das Obras Reais em Portugal no
século XVI e na 1ª metade do século XVII”. Anuario del Departamento de Historia y Teoria de Arte. Madrid:
Universidade Autónoma de Madrid. IX – X (1997-1998): 197- 209.
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designs for the grand royal works). But the discipline was approaching a turning point,
when drawing would be definitively consolidated as a form of planning, and architecture
would be understood as the art of conceiving and drawing buildings,8 to which the actual
building would be subordinated.
As the three positions for learning architecture were remunerated, access to them
had to be tightly controlled, and candidates were expected to have already had some
basic training.9 Initiation in the ‘art of architecture’ would vary and there are records of
basic apprenticeships taking place in family workshops or with private masters.10 Thus,
there was some overlap between the traditional craft and a new type of apprenticeship
which was more intellectualised. However, at this crossroads, what was important was
learning to draw, and this skill was acquired from an institutionalised relationship of
subordination between master and apprentice. Moreover, this was an organized process,
in the sense that it embodied a profession which, though not new, was undergoing
renewal of its disciplinary bases.
The professional curricula of some of the people involved are interesting, as they
reveal the ambivalent nature of this art. Some worked as civil architects and some as
military engineers, while there were others who combined both functions. The
remarkable number of engineers that emerged from this apprenticeship undermines the
notion that the training was restricted to civil architecture.11 However, in the second half
of the 17th century, the lesson was more explicitly reserved for civil architecture, although
there were still some occasional overlaps.
8
This innovation may have been related to the fact that the master was an Italian architect, who also
introduced a theoretical component. To some extent, this gives him a role similar to that which Juan de
Herrera performed in Castilian architectural culture; cf. MOREIRA, Rafael – “Um Tratado Português de
Arquitectura do Século XVI (1576 - 1579)”. Colectânea de estudos Universo Urbanístico Português 14151822. Lisboa: CNCDP, (1982) 1998: 382; SOROMENHO, Miguel – “Classicismo, italianismo e ‘estilo chão’.
O ciclo Filipino”. In PEREIRA, Paulo - História da Arte Portuguesa. Lisboa: Círculo de Leitores, 1995, II:
400).
9
It is sometimes recorded that the appointee ‘had many years of studying architecture’, or ‘was skilful at
drawing’, etc. (VITERBO, Dicionário Histórico e Documental dos Arquitectos..., III: 113).
10
For example, there is the case of Nicolau de Frias, who gave lessons in his own home (MOREIRA, “Um
Tratado Português de Arquitectura do Século XVI, 383). Nicolau de Frias (? – 1610) succeeded Terzi in
1598 as Master of the Royal Works, and consequently became the master of the three positions for learning
architecture. Only Filipe Terzi, Nicolau de Frias and Mateus do Couto are explicitly mentioned in the
documents as masters of the three positions for learning architecture.
11
Of around fifteen names that are known, four were military engineers, who had no important or famous
civil works. The other cases are more interesting, as they are less linear, though it is not possible to enter
into detail here; from 1691, there are no records of any further appointments to the three positions for the
th
learning of architecture, and the system seems to have been extinguished by the 18 century; cf.
CONCEIÇÃO, Margarida Tavares da - Da cidade e fortificação em textos portugueses (1540-1640). Ph.D
dissertation, Universidade de Coimbra, 2008: 396-401.
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Lessons of geometry and architecture.
The third and most salient detail concerning this structure was its teaching activity, which
became a necessary condition for exercising the profession of architect within the
administrative framework of the royal works. It is, however, this theoretical component
which makes the position for the learning of architecture into a place of study, implying
the occurrence of a lesson, whatever teaching method was used.
Both Terzi’s taccuino and, principally, Mateus do Couto’s treatise, demonstrate the
contents of the architecture lesson. However, another lesson is always cited as a
compulsory condition for admission and retention of the place. This was the lesson in
geometry or mathematics, also known as the ‘head cosmographer’s lesson’.12
This geometry lesson had an earlier origin. It had been a daily lesson given to
nautical pilots which took place in the riverside warehouses (near the royal palace) from
at least 1572. This illustrates how important navigational skills were to the Portuguese at
that time – for reasons that were obviously related to the vastness of the imperial
territory. Very elementary geometry was taught, such as the correct use of navigational
equipment like nautical charts, the astrolabe, cross-staff and quadrant, compass and sun
dial. How this cosmography lesson subsequently developed into a lesson on the
rudiments of geometry, more or less oriented towards architectural practice, is not really
known. All that remains is documental evidence of the insistence that apprentices attend
the cosmography lesson. As regards the appropriacy of the curriculum of the architecture
apprentices, this is a question that is best left open.
4 | Terzi’s taccuino and the architecture lesson
One of the first signs that the training had acquired a theoretical component in the
architecture lesson is the manuscript left by Terzi, a small taccuino13 (literally a notebook
12
This was originally referred to as ‘João Baptista Lavanha’s lesson’. Lavanha also wrote a treatise on
naval architecture and was the best person to demonstrate the connection between geometry and Vitruvian
concepts. His prestige as head cosmographer after Pedro Nunes is testified by the fact that Phillip II
contracted him to teach in Madrid in the Herreran institution, Academy of Mathematics and Architecture
(1582-1583); cf. MOREIRA, Rafael – “A Escola de Arquitectura do Paço da Ribeira e a Academia de
Matemáticas de Madrid”. In As Relações Artísticas entre Portugal e Espanha na Época dos
Decobrimentos. Coimbra: Instituto de História da Arte da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de
Coimbra, 1987, 65-77.
13
Its contents are listed as: Studies into embadometry, stereometry and the architectural orders. The first
page bears the inscription Filippo Terzi architetto e ingegnere militare in Portogallo 1578, though this is
probably not written in his own hand. It is a small codex, today preserved in the National Library of Portugal
(cod. 1295), containing 16 folios, written in Italian; cf. MOREIRA & SOROMENHO, “Engenheiros Militares
Italianos em Portugal (séculos XV-XVI)”, 116; GOMES, Paulo Varela, Arquitectura, Religião e Política em
Portugal no Século XVII. A Planta Centralizada. Porto: FAUP, (1998) 2001: 206; GOMES, “Aspectos do
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filled with notes and sketches), which had perhaps been executed in Portugal. In it,
written discourse is replaced by drawings, which could have been related to the first
stage of this pedagogical activity.
Although most of the content is drawn, there is evidence that it has been organized
pedagogically. At the beginning, there is material relating to elementary geometry, which
is followed by the sequence of the architectural orders. In fact, more than just elementary
geometry, the very first folios are devoted to the basic procedures used for measuring
geometrical solids and figures. This therefore represents a synthesis of the minimum
knowledge required for the exercise of architecture; indeed, greater concision could
scarcely have been possible.
The space occupied by the organized sequence of the five architectural orders, the
detailed explanations and the rigour of the modules and measurements, show that this
was the main subject matter of the taccuino and perhaps of the architectural training
course. There are no references of legends of origin, nor is any authority quoted, with
the exception of Vignola.14 The few remaining folios detail the construction of the
constituent elements of the different orders (with some variation admitted) in a sequence
that is clearly oriented towards practical execution.15
5 | the architectural treatise: the lesson of Master Mateus do Couto
Mateus do Couto (act. 1616 – 1676), was a legitimate product of Portuguese
architectural culture,16 responsible for one of the few surviving architectural treatises in
Portuguese. The Tractado de Architectura que leo o Mestre e Architecto Mattheus do
Couto o velho no Anno de 1631 (‘Architecture Treatise read by Master and Architect
classicismo na arquitectura portuguesa dos séculos XVI e XVII”; SOROMENHO, Miguel, et alli - A Ciência
do Desenho. A Ilustração na Colecção de Códices da Biblioteca Nacional. Lisboa: Biblioteca Nacional,
2001: 88.
14
Regole degli cinque ordini d'architettura, [1562]. From Vignola, the rigid structure is missing, as are the
proportions between the columns and the composition of the arcade, though it is significant that certain
variations have been introduced; cf. GOMES, “Aspectos do classicismo na arquitectura portuguesa dos
séculos XVI e XVII”.
15
Certain details accentuate the character of a personal notebook. It does not really have the structure of a
treatise, but seems rather to be a collection of the minimal knowledge (or designs) necessary of the five
architectural orders. This might be related to a tradition of manuals, which mix building precepts and rules
for drawing the orders, and which were used continuously by engineers, masons, craftsmen, etc., until the
th
mid 18 century, or even later. This reveals an architectural culture that was as yet rather diffuse and
unspecialised; cf. ; GOMES, Arquitectura, Religião e Política em Portugal no Século XVII. A Planta
Centralizada, and GOMES, “Aspectos do classicismo na arquitectura portuguesa dos séculos XVI e XVII”.
16
He was both architect and engineer, and perhaps the only case of an apprentice (appointed in 1616) who
later became a master and scholar. He held the highest posts possible for a royal architect, but also worked
in fortification (VITERBO, Dicionário Histórico e Documental dos Arquitectos, I: 546; BONIFÁCIO, Horácio Polivalência e Contradição. Tradição Seiscentista. O Barroco e a Inclusão de Sistemas Ecléticos no Século
XVIII. A Segunda Geração de Arquitectos. Ph.D dissertation, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, 1990: 77-80).
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Mattheus do Couto the Elder in the Year of 1631’) is thus presented as something to be
read, i.e. a ‘lecture’.17
Although this treatise is often mentioned in the restricted context of historiography
of architectural theory and culture in Portugal, only Paulo Varela Gomes (1998/2001;
2003) has interpreted it in more depth, comparing the strong influence of Vignola in
Terzi’s taccuino to the ‘Albertianism’ of Mateus do Couto’s treatise. There is, of course,
half a century separating them, as he points out.18
The treatise contains four books (the last of which is very truncated), though there
are certainly two others missing, one on military architecture and another on geometry.
There are also few illustrations announced, even though their number is not impressive.
In fact, the main body of the codex contains only text, a feature that emphasises its
Albertian lineage. However, in addition to its truncated nature, the limits of the internal
structure of the treatise are revealed in the organization of the content, which is far
removed from the conceptual complexity of De re aedificatoria.
The bases of the lesson.
In fact, the bases of the lesson seem to be presented right at the beginning, making this
into a kind of compendium of the essential subjects that the architect needs to know.
These are: the main principles of the art; a short appreciation of the qualities of the site
and a more detailed description of the architectural orders, on the assumption that they
are needed to ‘give shape’ to the building. The criteria underlying it are therefore
educational, rather than theoretical.
Mateus do Couto aimed to stress the ethical basis of the profession, involving both
essentiality and responsibility, and he reveals an in-depth knowledge of Alberti’s treatise,
which he quotes frequently.19 Despite all this, or perhaps because of it, it does not find it
is not easy to distinguish between theory and practice, or rather, between reason and
17
The extant codex is not complete and probably would have had twice as many pages, suggesting that it
was an unfinished copy. It is not written in the author’s hand, but was a copy made by Pedro Nunes Tinoco
(? – 1641). It is preserved in the National Library of Portugal (cod. 946), and has 97 pages with apocryphal
numbering (cf. CONCEIÇÃO, Da cidade e fortificação em textos portugueses: 401-403). It also includes a
direct, though incomplete, translation of Book II of Serlio (Tratado de Prospectiva, pp. 85-97), the
anachronistic character of which may not be attributable to Mateus do Couto.
18
Miguel Soromenho (SOROMENHO, “Classicismo, italianismo e ‘estilo chão’. O ciclo Filipino”: 399),
following Rafael Moreira’s studies, had also already cited the codex, describing it as a treatise dedicated
exclusively to civil architecture ‘conceived belatedly along Albertian lines’.
19
Editions used: ed. D. Barbaro, I dieci libri dell’architettura di M. Vitruvvio tradutti et commentati da
Monsignor Barbaro…, Venetia, 1556; and (probably), ed. C. Bartoli, L'architettura di Leonbattista Alberti
tradotta in lingua fiorentina da Cosimo Bartoli... Venetia, 1565.
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method, between planning through reason and doing through practice, between
lineaments and matter, in the manner closest to Alberti’s expression. It should be pointed
out that the concept of design in architecture is presented very explicitly:
‘Whoever
designs with ease and clarity knows how to show what is conceived in the mind.’ (p. 3).20
This is followed by an in-depth exploration of concepts that are effectively modern,
though it is not only the definition of architecture but also the process of building and its
product that are in question.21 It thus brings together the concepts of idea and execution,
and above all three concepts of Albertian inspiration, interpreted here by Mateus do
Couto as form, distribution and materials.
It is in the sense of ‘form’ or ‘figure’ that he presents a summary of the orders of
columns, with their rules and exceptions, here assumed very naturally and practically.
Mateus do Couto also presents advice on concrete matters, clarifying doubts and
legitimising options. For this, he resorts to precedents constructed by authorised
architects (citing his own master, the Portuguese Baltazar Álvares, and Filipe Terzi’s
solutions) or to the architect’s commonsense, supplemented by the necessary
experience.
The set square and architectural design
The way in which the lesson proceeds is important as it is organized in order of
technicality. One of the most interesting topics is the importance given to the set square
and the principle of the right angle, which should govern the design, implantation and
construction of buildings.
The density of the concepts involved here is noteworthy, although it compromises
the potential span of the treatise. Indeed, it tends sometimes to oscillate between matters
of beauty and utility, in a kind of summary between theory and practice. To a large
extent, this singularity may result from Mateus do Couto’s understanding of architecture,
through a pragmatism based on traditional principles, tempered with a critical sense,
which is especially evident in his considerations of technical and construction questions.
20
In the original ‘Quer que tenha desenho para com facilidade, e clareza sayba mostar o que concebe no
entendimento.’ (COUTO, Mateus do - Tractado de Architectura que leo o Mestre e Architº Matheus do
Couto o velho no Anno de 1631: 3)
21
In the chapter Em que se declara que couza he edificar, e que couza seja Edifício (‘In which it is declared
what thing is to be built and what thing is the Building’) (Lº 1, cap. 4). For good results, he naturally invokes
the need for good architectural performance, citing some famous names from Italian architecture (Alberti,
Rafael, Vignola, Palladio), and also a Frenchman (Philibert de l’Orme).
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Thus, architectural conception design is only explained (illogically it would seem) in
the last (complete) book, which deals, amongst other things, with the act of planning
through drawing. Although architecture is dealt with in the previous pages, it is almost
always as building or construction, not yet clearly explaining the act of drawing within the
framework of a planning culture. This disorder is only apparent, however, because
architectural design (i.e. technical design as the record of a plan) requires greater skill
and training.
In the context of the architecture lesson, before the apprentice becomes an
architect, before he is able to design architectural plans, before he is able to accurately
represent the ‘understanding of the building’, he has to possess all the elementary
knowledge about building. Hence, design was only broached at a more advanced stage
of the architecture course.
This means that the lesson would have been supplemented by increasingly-demanding
training in the art of drawing and by witnessing works on site. The text was destined to
be read and explained, not in the theoretical environment of the court or academy, but in
the context of a professional apprenticeship that was very restricted and where the
apprentices’ skills in drawing and construction could be constantly gauged.
To a large extent, this purpose explains the somewhat superficial treatment given
to most of the subjects, inversely proportional to the abundance of bibliographic
quotations.22 That is to say, this text has sacrificed disciplinary logic to pedagogical
concerns, in order to ensure the efficient transmission of knowledge. The treatise was as
erudite as it needed to be, and did not include architectural designs; however, it
emphasised the joint importance of principles and experience, establishing the subjects
to be taught in an institutional lesson for the training of architects in the service of the
pre-modern monarchy.
Selective Bibliography / References
ALBERTI, Leon Battista, trans. Cosimo Bartoli - L'architettura di Leonbattista Alberti
tradotta in lingua fiorentina da Cosimo Bartoli, Gentilhuomo & Academico Fiorentino.
Con la aggiunta de’ disegni. Venetia: appresso Francesco Franceschi Senese, 1565
22
For this reason, it is not difficult to identify his sources: almost all are referred to in some detail.
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ALBERTI, Leon Battista, ed. Joseph Rykwert, Neil Leach e Robert Tavernor -On the Art
of Building in Ten Books. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, (1485 –1486) 1988.
BONIFÁCIO, Horácio - Polivalência e Contradição. Tradição Seiscentista. O Barroco e
a Inclusão de Sistemas Ecléticos no Século XVIII. A Segunda Geração de Arquitectos.
Ph.D dissertation, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, 1990.
CONCEIÇÃO, Margarida Tavares da – “A Praça de Guerra, aprendizagens entre a
Aula do Paço e a Aula de Fortificação”. Oceanos. Lisboa: CNCDP. 41 (2000) 24-38.
CONCEIÇÃO, Margarida Tavares da - Da cidade e fortificação em textos portugueses
(1540-1640). Ph.D dissertation, Universidade de Coimbra, 2008.
COUTO, Mateus do - Tractado de Architectura que leo o Mestre e Architº Matheus do
Couto o velho no Anno de 1631. (BNP Ms. Cod. 946).
GOMES, Paulo Varela - A Confissão de Cyrillo, estudos de História da Arte e da
Arquitectura. Lisboa: Hiena, 1992.
GOMES, Paulo Varela, Arquitectura, Religião e Política em Portugal no Século XVII. A
Planta Centralizada. Porto: FAUP, (1998) 2001.
GOMES, Paulo Varela – “Aspectos do classicismo na arquitectura portuguesa dos
séculos XVI e XVII”. In 14,5 Ensaios de História e arquitectura, Coimbra, Almedina,
(2003) 2007.
MOREIRA, Rafael – “Um Tratado Português de Arquitectura do Século XVI (1576 1579)”. Colectânea de estudos Universo Urbanístico Português 1415-1822. Lisboa:
CNCDP, (1982) 1998, 353 – 398.
MOREIRA, Rafael – “A Escola de Arquitectura do Paço da Ribeira e a Academia de
Matemáticas de Madrid”. In As Relações Artísticas entre Portugal e Espanha na Época
dos Decobrimentos. Coimbra: Instituto de História da Arte da Faculdade de Letras da
Universidade de Coimbra, 1987, 65-77.
MOREIRA, Rafael – “O Engenheiro-mor e a Circulação das Formas no Império
Português». Portugal et Flandres, Visões da Europa 1550-1680. Lisboa: IPPC, 1992.
MOREIRA, Rafael & SOROMENHO, Miguel – “Engenheiros Militares Italianos em
Portugal (séculos XV-XVI)”. In VIGANÒ, Marino - Architetti e Ingegneri Militari Italiani
all’estero dal XV al XVIII secolo. Dall’Atlantico al Baltico. Roma – Livorno: Istituto
Italiano dei Castelli - Sillabe, 1999, II, 109-131.
RUÃO, Carlos - "O Eupalinos Moderno": teoria e prática da arquitectura religiosa em
Portugal: 1550-1640. Ph.D Universidade de Coimbra, 2006
SOROMENHO, Miguel – “Classicismo, italianismo e ‘estilo chão’. O ciclo Filipino”. In
PEREIRA, Paulo - História da Arte Portuguesa. Lisboa: Círculo de Leitores, 1995, II,
377-403.
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SOROMENHO, Miguel – “A Administração da Arquitectura: o Provedor das Obras
Reais em Portugal no século XVI e na 1ª metade do século XVII”. Anuario del
Departamento de Historia y Teoria de Arte. Madrid: Universidade Autónoma de Madrid.
IX – X (1997-1998) 197- 209.
SOROMENHO, Miguel, et alli - A Ciência do Desenho. A Ilustração na Colecção de
Códices da Biblioteca Nacional. Lisboa: Biblioteca Nacional, 2001.
TERZI, Fillipo - [Estudos sobre embandometria, estereometria e as ordens de
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