History of Biology
Faculty of Science
Radboud University Nijmegen
Lecturer: dr. W. Halffman
Contact: [email protected]
Course code: BB028B
Credits: 3 EC
Introduction and overview
The history of biology is rich and full of remarkable stories, which are often surprisingly
relevant for the present. For example, some theoretical puzzles and tensions in taxonomy that
date back to the 18th century remain unresolved today. Similarly, there are exciting analyses
of the problematic assumptions at the historic roots of evolutionary theory. History also offers
us important warnings, such as for what can go wrong once totalitarian regimes determine
what is good science and what is not. With the right perspective and the right kind of
questions, the history of biology can offer instructive insights for fundamental theoretical
problems, for the sometimes difficult relations between biology and society, and even offer a
glimpse of half-forgotten knowledge. History also offers reflection on what is probably the
toughest question of the discipline: what actually is biology?
It may sound like a dreadful cliché, but the aim of this course is to learn from
history. The course will not present you with an endless stream of historic facts or isolated
funny anecdotes (although some of the history of biology can be quite entertaining). The
stress will be on the interpretation of history: we will try to understand patterns and
relations in the development of biology, rather than list who discovered what, where, and
when. To this end, the course is constructed around three main points: biology is diverse,
biology is always connected to society, and biology has made mistakes from which we can
learn a lot. For these purposes, the course will focus on the history of biology since the 18th
century, where the most concrete connections with the current practice of biology can be
made.
With respect to diversity, the course will offer an overview of styles in doing biology,
which will show that, historically, there were many different ways of doing biology. For
example, whereas current biology is often dominated by laboratories and molecular biology,
biology also has a rich heritage of a taxonomical style of research. In this style, the most
important centres of biological research were museums of natural history, botanic gardens,
and other collections of specimen that were carefully collected, often on long and adventurous
expeditions to exotic places. We will see how the laboratory gained a foothold in biology
towards the end of the 19th century and then gradually expanded its reign through the rise of
genetics and later molecular biology.
We will not only look at the development of biological ideas and research practices,
but pay special attention to the development of the relation between biology and society.
We will find out where biologists got their research funds in the past, how biological thinking
incorporated ideas from wider culture, but also how biology had a profound societal impact
itself. We will follow biologists around as they tried to improve agriculture, fought infectious
diseases, or became activists calling for nature conservation and environmental protection.
If we want to learn from history, then we should not only focus on the success stories
and show-cases, such as the discovery of the structure of DNA, or revered heroes such as
Charles Darwin. We should also have the courage to see the dark side of biology’s history,
such as the flirtations with eugenics or racism. For it is only when we have the courage to
look in the dark corners that we may find the means to confront such monsters, should they
once again rear their ugly heads.
In eight lectures, the following topics will be addressed:
1. History of biology: why and how?
(Dissecting history from the Greeks to the Scientific Revolution)
2. The classification of nature
(Herbals, Linnaeus and taxonomy, natural history)
3. Evolution
(Lamarck, Darwin, evolutionary biology)
4. The rise of the laboratory
(From alchemy to Pasteur and the experimental style)
2
5. From generation to genetics
(Inheritance, Mendel, fruit flies and eugenics)
6. The molecularisation of biology
(The discovery of DNA, but also biology under Stalin)
7. Agriculture and medicine
(How biology changed the world, and the world changed biology)
8. The arrival of ‘the environment’
(Ecology, nature conservation, environmental protection, regulation)
Learning objectives
Because of the importance on learning from history in this course, the learning objectives
stress the usefulness of historical knowledge for an understanding of how biology operates
today.
At the end of this course, you are able to:
1. Recognise basic connections and tensions between biology and society through
historic examples, in order to better appreciate such tensions in the current practice of
biology.
2. Recognise and appreciate the variety of styles and organisation of research in research
in reference to basic examples from the history of biology.
3. Recognise and understand the importance of social processes (such as fame, selective
attention) for the development of research, at a basic level.
4. Understand how different approaches to history and current concerns affect how
history is presented, based examples from the history of biology, at basic level.
Format of the course
Lectures
The backbone of the course consists of eight lectures. These lectures have been recorded in
the past (in Dutch), allowing you to study the lectures at home. The contents of the lectures
has not changed since last year (except for a few trivial corrections and the extensive
replacement some visual material because of copyrights). Unfortunately, these recordings are
technically imperfect and you should only rely on them as a back-up. Hence attendance at
the lectures is not obligatory, but strongly recommended. After every lecture, the slides of
the lecture will be posted on Blackboard, as well as some occasional background information.
Discussion Board
I try to make lectures lively and interactive, but unfortunately interaction with a large group in
lecture hall is more limited than I would like. Fortunately, Blackboard provides ample
opportunity to interact. After every lecture, I will post a set of questions about the class
(lecture and background texts). These questions are a good indication of the kind of questions
you will get at the exam. Hence formulating an answer to these questions is an excellent
opportunity to prepare for the exam. This is not just an option: every student is expected to
participate in answering these questions online. This means you can answer questions, correct
or annex earlier answers, or write completely new or reformulated answers. In order to give
everybody the opportunity to answer questions, students will be divided in groups with
separate bulletin boards.
Teaching materials
Under ‘course content’ on Blackboard, you will find extra suggestions and tips to help you
study for this course, such as a chronology and a list of essential names for the course (so
you know which ones to remember). To help you answer essay questions (a type of question
you will probably not be familiar with), there is a document called “How to answer a
3
question”. This explains how to structure answers to essay questions and explains why a right
answer is not necessarily a sufficient answer.
Reading
In the reader with texts for this course, you will find about 40 pages to read every week. This
will be hard, because you will not be familiar with these kinds of texts. Fortunately, history is
full of entertaining stories and most of these texts actually do read as stories. Nevertheless,
this will be a challenge, especially if you do not do your weekly reading. The texts provide
extra context and detail to the material of the lectures and occasionally expand on material for
which there is no time in the lecture. The weekly questions are a good indication of what is
important about these texts and can hence help you to focus your reading.
You do not have to memorise all the details, names and dates, but you have to be
able to understand the processes in the history of biology and their relation to larger historic
events. That does not mean that you do not need any dates at all. For example, in order to
connect Darwin with the politics of Victorian England, you will at least have to know that
Darwin lived in the 19th century. However, the fact that the Origin of Species was published
first in 1859 is something that can be easily looked up. To help you distinguish between what
is and is not important, you should look at the chronology and the list of names.
Although there is some overlap between the lectures and the texts, they do not always
cover the same ground and you will have to read the texts to work through all the material.
The reader is sold via the “print on demand” system of the Lecture Notes Centre
(Dictatencentrale): https://fnwi.ru-bestel.nl/
Tutorials
Half-way through the course and at the end, there will be an optional tutorial where we will
discuss questions: questions and answers from the bulletin boards, exam questions, or
questions you may still have about the course materials.
Assessment and grading
Written exam: 80% of the grade
The written exam contains multiple-choice and open essay questions. You will find a sample
of a previous exam on Blackboard. You will be allowed to use an English dictionary during
the exam. (A printed book, not an electronic dictionary and not an encyclopaedia.)
Participation in the Blackboard discussion boards: 20% of the grade
This is a participation grade: as soon as you make an effort to participate meaningfully in
answering the questions on Blackboard, you easily get a decent grade. However, if you do not
participate at all, the effect on your final grade is quite drastic. You get a grade for the effort
of your answers, so try to write well-developed replies (not just one-liners). The norm is 5
well-developed answers per student, but you will get extra points for answering more
questions. You can answer questions up to the hour of the exam, even weeks after the lecture,
and final grades will only be counted after the exam. However, I strongly urge you to work
a little on the questions every week, so you can keep up with the material. Remember that
corrections or additions to other answers also count! This is a collective effort.
ALWAYS MENTION YOUR SOURCES if you use extra material. It is fine to consult
other sources for answering the questions. In fact, I will even consider that as extra effort with
higher grades, but only if you refer to the source. On the other hand, if you copy texts in your
answer without a proper source, you run the risk of plagiarism. It is in your own interest to
use other sources with correct references!
How to study this course
4
This course is probably quite different from what you are used to in your biology programme
(even after Biology and Society). This is how I think you can best study this course every
week:
- Go to the lecture (or look at the recorded one if you cannot)
- Read the week’s questions
- Read the week’s texts (which should take you no more than 6 hours, likely less)
- Make notes while reading: write down what you will need to answer the questions
- Have another look at the slides from the lecture
- Check whether you can answer the week’s questions
- Pick a question on the bulletin board to formulate an answer, or add to answers
already provided by other students.
If you make good notes and answer the questions for yourself, then you should not have to
wade through all the material again to study for the exam. It is really important to keep up
with this course by studying a bit every week. If you delay the reading, it will become an
insurmountable pile in the days before the exam.
Course load
Course load for
Credits:
3 EC, at
History of Biology
28 hrs/EC =
84 hours to be spent on the course.
Total pages to be read:
320 pp, at ca.
7 pages/hr =
There are
10 meetings in this course, to a total of
Other parts (exam, bulletin board, etc.) will cost you
Total =
46
20
18
84
hours
hours
hours
hours
As you can see, I record the course quite precisely. I am always open to suggestions on how
to improve the course, but the load for a 3EC course is and remains 84 hours of work.
Good luck with the course!
Willem Halffman
5
Overview of the lectures
Lecture 1: Why history of biology?
The first lecture discusses the uses of history and of history of biology in particular. Why
should we study old knowledge? Is old knowledge not by definition outdated and irrelevant?
Why muddle in the past if we could also focus on new biological knowledge? Just as there are
good reasons to study history in general, there are also good reasons not to forget biology’s
past. As a wise man once said: if we do not learn from the mistakes of the past, we are
doomed to repeat them.
The thing about history is, perhaps not entirely unlike other sciences, that the answers
you get from the past very much depend on the kind of questions you ask it. Different kinds
of questions will provide different perspectives, highlighting different processes. In the past,
history of science was often presented as an accumulation of heroic discoveries, with present
science as the pinnacle of all these advances. More recent historians put more emphasis on the
succession of styles or world views in biology, which suggest radical shifts in history, rather
and a steady accumulation. Other historians stress the connections of biological thinking and
wider culture, or the importance of practical biology and the application of biological
knowledge to society. We will try to combine these different perspectives to show how
history can contribute to our current concerns in biology.
History is often written with a current goal in mind. For example, history is often
written by the victors, to put their stamp on the collective memory and to confirm the
rightfulness of their victory. The history of biology is no exception. In this lecture, we will
therefore also investigate what happens if we push the usefulness of history too far, to where
it becomes the abuse of history for current concerns.
The lecture will provide some insight in how different perspectives are used in history
and how a basic understanding of these perspectives can help you to remain critical about
history of biology, even without specialised knowledge. We will work with examples for the
early history of biology, roughly from the Greeks to the so-called Scientific Revolution, with
some special attention to the history of biomedical dissection. This will allow us to do more
than just talk about the history of biology’s ‘how and why’, but to actually make a start with
it.
Texts
Overview:
Magner, Lois N. 2002. A History of the Life Sciences. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, Fl.: CRC Press.
Ch2 The Greek Legacy (fragments from p. 41-76)
Ch. 3: The Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution (fragments from p. 77-110).
This week, the texts stay close to the lecture. They will allow you to digest the same
information in a different format and with more detail, including things that are mentioned
only very briefly in class (such as the consequences of Alexander the Great’s conquests for
intellectual life).
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Huff, T. E. (2003 [1993]). The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West (2nd Ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heavy going, but fascinating history of Islamic and Chinese science in relation to the West.
Shapin, S. (1996). The Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fascinating little book about the scientific revolution (and why the term is misleading) with
the memorable opening: “There was no such thing as the Scientific Revolution, and this is a
book about it.” Shapin is one of the leading historians of science connecting science to its
social context. The focus of the book is mostly on physics, but there is some biology too.
Lecture 2: The classification of nature
In the 17th century, the first systematic biological collections originated from the curiosity
cabinets of rich citizens. Especially in botany, a lot of work was invested in systematising the
chaos of plant collections. Finding a systematic order was not only of intellectual, but also of
great practical importance: an effective taxonomy would allow the adequate identification of
plants that were of use in pharmacy, agriculture, or horticulture, especially as new crops were
introduced from the expanding colonies.
The botanic garden and, later, the natural history museum, were therefore important
centres of biological research. They had global connections through extensive personal and
economic networks, in which expeditions played an important role. From these collections
eventually originated large collections in public ownership, with important institutions such as
the London Museum of Natural History as lasting monuments.
An epic effort at systematisation was made by biologists such as Linnaeus, who we
still know from many binomial scientific names of animals and plants, and De Jussieu, who
developed the system of taxa that still forms the basis of modern-day plant guides. A closer
look at such early taxonomists allows us to get an idea of how they worked, what their
concerns were, and how these were connected to cultural and economic contexts.
The systematisation work produced the golden age of a particular style of doing
biological research: the taxonomic style, as particular tradition in ‘natural history’. From the
end of the 19th century, this style would gradually lose ground and eventually would get
eclipsed by experimental biology and later molecular biology. Especially towards the end of
the 20th century, the taxonomic style of biological research had a hard time. Important
collections, sometimes the result of centuries of painstaking collection work, were neglected
or even terminated. Field knowledge and identification was more and more seen as something
for which ‘real’ biologists no longer had time. Only in the last couple of decades, this style of
research has made a small come-back, with new attention for biodiversity and new
applications for old collections, such as in climate change research or restoration ecology.
Texts
Overview
Kwa, C. (2011). Styles of Knowing. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. 165-195.
Kwa explains the taxonomic style and its importance in the systematisation work of biology,
especially in early plant books.
Detail and illustration:
Blunt, W. (2004). Linnaeus: The Compleat Naturalist. London: Frances Lincoln, part 2, Chapters 2-3
(fragments p 92-108).
Short fragments providing some more detail about the relation between Linnaeus and his
Dutch protector Clifford, a co-operation that was of key importance to his early career. Pay
special attention to how both men benefited from this relationship.
Müller-Wille S. (2006) Linnaeus' herbarium cabinet: a piece of furniture and its function. Endeavour
30: 60-64.
This short text shows some of the practical problems involved in maintaining and managing a
collection and how Linnaeus tried to solve these problems with his famous plant cabinet. It
also provides insight into how his system of ordering plants worked.
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Ashworth Jr., W. B. (1996). Emblematic natural history of the Renaissance. In N. Jardine, J. A. Secord
& E. C. Spray (Eds.), Cultures of Natural History (pp. 17-37). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Good illustration of the transition from emblematic to naturalised presentation in biology,
illustrated with the presentation of the fox.
Kwa, C. (2005). De ontdekking van het weten: een andere geschiedenis van de wetenschap.
Amsterdam: Boom.
Styles of knowing in Dutch. Shows styles throughout science, not just biology.
Pickstone, J. V. (2000). Ways of Knowing: A new history of science, technology and medicine.
Manchester: Manchester University Press.
“Ways” in stead of “styles”, but also an overview of the different ways in which we do science
in different disciplines and periods.
Lecture 3: Evolution
The taxonomic style discussed in the previous lecture formed the basis for the study of
species’ variability. Using 19th century collections, Charles Darwin and his contemporaries
were able to study variation between organisms and relate this variation to context. In fact,
Darwin himself made important contributions to these collections, both as a result of his
expedition with the Beagle and as a result of his extensive and global network of personal
contacts afterwards.
However, apart from the biological collections, Darwin had various other
considerations and inspirations. For example, the idea of ‘natural selection’ originated in
breeding practices with domestic animals, especially pigeons. Social science was another
important source of inspiration. Especially the rather pessimistic demography of Robert
Malthus provided a key metaphor in Darwin’s thinking: Malthus thought human populations
would grow until food scarcity would halt growth through famines. A more surprising third
consideration, only recently identified, was Darwin’s rejection of slavery. Whereas proslavery biologists justified slavery on the grounds that African people constituted a separate
and inferior species (!), Darwin stressed the common descent of humanity.
During the 19th century, evolutionary ideas were used in fierce ideological and
theological debates on the role of god and creation in nature, the role of people in nature, and
also the relations between people. On the right of the political spectrum, Darwin was used to
justify various forms of ‘social Darwinism’, arguing that a ruthless struggle between people
would favour the strong and relegate the weak to their rightfully inferior position in society.
On the left, people like Karl Marx argued that Darwin showed how humanity should rise
above the ruthless state of nature and not live like ever competing animals. The reception of
Darwin’s ideas was therefore powerful, but by no means simple and univocal.
Texts
Overview
Fara, P. (2009). Science: A Four Thousand Year History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ch. 5
Evolution, p. 230-237.
General introduction to Darwin, his work, and his importance.
Browne J. (1996) Biogeography and Empire. In: Jardine N, Secord JA and Spary EC (eds.) Cultures of
Natural History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 305-321.
This text puts Darwin in the context of imperial science: a biology that is part of empirebuilding, making use of its tools (expeditions, communication), but also some of its ideology,
even in the liberal-minded Darwin. The text also nicely connects Darwin’s work with the
tradition of natural history discussed in the previous week.
Detail and illustration:
Darwin, C. (1859). The Origin of Species (1st ed.), fragments from chapter 3 en 4 in: James A Secord
(ed.) Charles Darwin: Evolutionary Writings, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 132162 (shortened, fragments).
Darwin moves very systematically and with great attention to detail and possible objections –
hence this heavily edited and shorted version of the text. Reading Victorian biology is not
easy, but this is one of the most important books ever written in biology and every biologist
should at least read some of “The Origin”. Pay special attention to Darwin’s (admitted and
non-admitted) use of metaphors. In later editions, Darwin would try to remove explicit
references to metaphors, to prevent tackle objections from critical opponents.
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Desmond, A., & Moore, J. (2009). Darwin's sacred cause: Race, slavery and the quest for human
origins. Harcourt: Houghton Mifflin.
The book that linked Darwin to the abolitionists and rocked the world of Darwin studies.
Great detail about Darwin’s life and family. Very well written.
Fodor, J., & Piattelli-Palmarini, M. (2010). What Darwin Got Wrong: Profile Books.
Very interesting critical re-appraisal of the logical structure of the evolutionary argument.
Jardine N, Secord J.A. and Spary E.C., eds. (1996) Cultures of Natural History. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Beautiful book with many short studies in the history of natural history.
Lecture 4: The rise of the laboratory
During the 19th century the laboratory slowly became more important in biology, although the
historic roots of laboratories go back to the workshops of alchemists, the rise of experimental
science in the 17th century, and the development of instruments such as the microscope. The
rise of the lab occurred especially in cell biology, biochemistry, physiology, and
microbiology/bacteriology, where it provided important breakthroughs. By about 1900, the
lab had become the prominent place of work in general biology, dislodging the taxonomic
style from its former prominence. The ‘new biology’, as it became known, provided the basis
for the later development of genetics, to be discussed in the next class.
By means of the laboratory, 19th century biology was mobilised for new and largescale applications, such as in medicine and agriculture. The laboratory provided biologists
with a controlled environment, in which they could try out practical interventions such as the
introduction of vaccines or food conservation techniques. This week, we will have some more
attention for medical biology, with colourful scientists such as Louis Pasteur and his
competition with Robert Koch in the development of vaccines, or Justus von Liebig, who
concocted new ways to conserve food. Some of these scientists’ interests in applications went
so far, they even became involved in industrial companies.
Texts
Overview
Magner, L. N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences (3rd Ed.). Boca Raton, Fl.: CRC Press, Ch. 7
(fragments from p 243-276, shortened).
Focuses on Pasteur, the controversy over spontaneous generation and his competition with
Koch. Pay special attention to the importance of the laboratory and skilled experimentation.
Illustration and detail:
Finlay MR. (1992) Quackery and Cookery: Justus von Liebig's Extract of Meat and the Theory of
Nutrition in the Victorian Age. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 66: 404-418.
The efforts of von Liebig to make his meat extraction product successful. Pay special attention
to how the scientist von Liebig is also an entrepreneur. Sometimes people suggest that the
commercial involvement of science is a recent development, but scientists such as von Liebig
were deeply involved with industry already in the 19th century. Also pay attention to how the
reputation of Von Liebig is used to make claims about the benefits of the product.
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Latour, B. (1993). The pasteurization of France. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Surprising, but highly controversial study of how Louis Pasteur and especially his laboratory
changed France.
Lecture 5: From generation to genetics
Around 1900, breakthroughs in the study of heredity shook up biology. Biologists began to
discover several systematic patterns in the transfer of hereditary traits. The rediscovery of
extensive experiments with beans, lead to the celebration of Gregor Mendel as the founding
father of genetics, even though his role was most likely rather symbolic. In the next decades,
it became clear that chromosomes were the most likely carriers of hereditary information.
After Thomas Hunt Morgan’s work with fruit flies, genetic research took off, with a paradigm
that would dominate most of 20th century genetics: the nucleus and its chromosomes contain
the information that is the determining factor in the expression of hereditary traits.
The lecture will stress two key points. First, we will analyse how this approach
became so dominant and what was pushed aside to create this dominance. This was
particularly remarkable as ‘generation’ had been a much wider field of research, including
embryological, evolutionary, and inheritance of characteristics, all as related research
questions. The creation of the genetic paradigm hence required something of a scientific
‘coup d’état’ (productive as it may have been), at the expense of marginalised research such
as the study of cytoplasmic inheritance or epigenetics.
Second, we will look at the eugenics movement, which claimed that knowledge of
inheritance could be applied to improve the human species. Most of you probably know about
the excesses this produced in Nazi Germany, but eugenics was an international movement that
was strongly represented in countries such as the US or Britain, already well before the
Second World War. Even in The Netherlands, there had been proponents of eugenics,
although the movement was only had some success in the Dutch East Indies. Eugenics raises
questions about how biology can be mobilised as an instrument of control, marginalisation,
and even radical exclusion of unpopular groups in society.
Texts
Overview
Magner, L. N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences (3rd Ed.). Boca Raton, Fl.: CRC Press, Ch. 9,
Genetics (fragments, p.369, 376-412, shortened).
Overview of the origins and development of early genetics.
Detail and illustration
Pols, H. (2010). Eugenics in the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies. In A. Bashford & P. Levine
(Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics (pp. 347-362). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
The article shows how and why eugenics was not popular in The Netherlands, while at the
same time it did get quite some attention in the Dutch colonies in the East Indies. Pay special
attention to the relation between political considerations and the popularity/unpopularity of
eugenic theories.
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Kevles, D. J. (1985). In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
The classic study of the history of eugenics has an Anglo-Saxon focus.
Kohler, R. E. (1994). Lords of the fly: drosophila genetics and the experimental life. Chicago: Chicago
University Press.
Classic study of early genetics, Morgan and his contemporaries.
Fox Keller, E. (1983). A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock. San
Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Feminist study of McClintock’s life, analysing why McClintock faced so much opposition, but
arguing also (and controversially) that she brought a specifically feminine perspective to
genetics.
Sapp, J. (1987). Beyond the Gene. Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The story of how cytoplasmic inheritance was side-tracked in genetics. (An interpretation that
is not shared by all historians, see the end of Magner’s chapter.)
Lecture 6: The molecularisation of biology
After the introduction of the laboratory in large parts of biology and after the break-through of
genetics, biology’s attention gradually shifted to the molecular level. A much-celebrated
highlight in this shift was the discovery of the structure of DNA, but the development went
much further. This week, we will look at how the ‘molecularisation’ of biology occurred and
how its leaders became much-revered scientific celebrities.
We will also follow the career of Hermann Joseph Muller, who started in Morgan’s
fly room and stumbled into the bizarre events of Russia’s Lysenko affair. The quack theories
of plant breeder Lysenko had been declared official state biology in Stalin’s Soviet Union,
claiming hard proof for the inheritance of acquired characteristics in agricultural crops. This
was in direct conflict with Western genetics, to the despair of scientists such as Muller. In
spite of any substantial evidence, Lysenko’s theories became the basis for the official Soviet
agriculture, with disastrous effects. Meanwhile, opponents of Lysenko were sent to the
infamous labour camps of the Soviet Gulag, where many of them died of exhaustion and
starvation. In spite of systematic failures, ‘lysenkoism’ remained the state biology until the
1960s, even after the death of dictator Joseph Stalin. As late as the 1950s, the theories found
new support, as they were adopted by communist China. Meanwhile, the story of Lysenko
was mobilised in the West to support its claims at ideological superiority during the Cold War
years.
The chilling story of Lysenko raises questions about the societal conditions for the
development of science, and about the relation between science, the state, and democracy.
Texts
Overview
Magner, L. N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences (3rd Ed.). Boca Raton, Fl.: CRC Press, p 417-454.
The story of the discovery of the structure of DNA.
Detail and illustration
Joravsky, D. (1970). The Lysenko Affair. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U.P., p.58-65, 112-119.
A little more detail on the bizarre circumstances of the story of Lysenko. Pay special attention
to the important, but nevertheless limited role of Stalin in the affair: this was not just the
consequence of a mad dictator!
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Allen, G. E. (1975). Life Sciences in the Twentieth Century. New York: Wiley.
Classic overview of the development towards molecular biology.
Carlson, E. A. (1981). Genes, Radiation, and Society. The Life and Work of H. J. Muller Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
Biography of Hermann J. Muller.
Joravsky, D. (1970). The Lysenko Affair. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Joravsky’s book remains the classic study of the rise and fall of Lysenko and it is well worth
reading the baffling full story.
Graham, L. R. (1993). Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A short history. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Study of the peculiarities of science in Russia.
Lecture 7: Agriculture and medicine
Agriculture and medicine are important areas of application of biological knowledge. They
are also areas where biology’s contributions to society have been of enormous importance.
From the late 18th century, improvements in food production and agriculture allowed for
further urbanisation and industrialisation. The new crops that were brought under control and
distributed through botanic gardens in the previous centuries became crucial in this
development (see also the second lecture, on taxonomic biology). Throughout the 19th
century, new biological insights would create the foundations for life-saving applications in
medicine, as we already saw in the fourth lecture on the laboratory’s rise in biology.
To get a wider picture of how biology and society are woven together, we will take a
different approach from the previous lectures. We will focus on two biological artefacts and
follow them through history. The first is the tomato, on its voyage from Peru to the high-tech
environment of Dutch greenhouses. The second is the contraceptive pill, from its conception
at the insistence of feminist activists, via the ‘sexual revolution’, to current controversies
around, such as the underdeveloped male contraceptive pill. This approach of following an
artefact around, allow for better investigation of the networks that tie biology and society
together. Rather than an insulated academic endeavour, biology then appears as an activity
that is profoundly connected with society through often surprising networks.
Texts
Overview
Johnson RC. (1977) Feminism, Philanthropy and Science in the Development of the Oral
Contraceptive Pill. Pharmacy in History, 19: 63-78.
The story of the making of the contraceptive pill, with special attention to the role of feminists
and philanthropic money (the American activists Sanger and McCormick).
Harvey, M., Quilley, S., & Beynon, H. (2002). Exploring the tomato: transformations of nature, society
and economy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, Ch. 2 (25-43).
Overview of the development of the tomato, pointing at the diverse patterns of development in
different regions and periods. (The rest of the book discusses more recent developments, but
also shows in more detail how the tomato is shaped through society and high tech knowledge.)
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Smith, A. F. (1994). The tomato in America: early history, culture, and cookery. Columbia: University
of South Carolina Press.
If you really want to know even more about the history of tomatoes, this is an entertaining
book, focusing mostly on Northern America.
Kurlansky, M. (1997). Cod: a biography of the fish that changed the world. New York: Penguin
Books.
Very surprising history that follows the same approach as with the tomato, but with a fish.
Journalistic and an easy read.
Oudshoorn, N. (2003). The Male Pill: A Biography of a Technology in the Making. Durham: Duke
University Press.
Feminist history of the male contraceptive pill, asking the seemingly simple question of why it
took so long to develop a male contraceptive pill.
Junod, S. W., & Marks, L. (2002). Women's trials: the approval of the first oral contraceptive pill in the
United States and Great Britain. Journal for the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences,
57(2), 117-160.
Describes the clinical trials and approval of the early pill.
Lecture 8: The arrival of ‘the environment’
The last lecture deals with nature and environment. By looking at the development of
ecology, but also concerns about nature and environment raised by biologists, we can study
another area where biology has developed in close connection with societal concerns. We will
look at the role of biology in putting nature and environmental protection on the public
agenda, and how biologists have tried to advise policy makers.
The lecture will start with a short history of ‘environmental problems’, from ancient
time to the 19th century, when a loose network of engineers, medical biologists and doctors
would raise concerns about the link between health and environment: the ‘hygienists’. Also in
the 19th century, nature became gradually more valued, not just because it presented a rich
natural resource (of wood or game), but also for its inherent beauty, under the influence of the
Romantic movement. Eventually, this would lead to the first Dutch nature reserves in the
early 20th century. We will also follow the development of ecology, as a sub-field of biology
that had its roots in natural history that made some strong promises about the management of
nature and agriculture, and even had the ambition of becoming ‘the’ science of the
environment. After 1970, this all comes together in the ‘first wave’ of the Dutch
environmental movement, which allows us to look more closely at scientists as environmental
activists.
Texts
Overview
Bowler, P. J., & Rhys Morus, I. (2005). Making Science Modern: A Historical Survey. Chicago:
Chicago University Press, Ch. 9 (213-235).
Overview of the history of ecology as a research field in biology.
Detail and illustration
Van der Windt, H. J. (1999). The Rise of the Nature Conservation Movement and the Role of the State:
the Case of The Netherlands, 1860-1955. In V. Heyen (Ed.), Naturnutzung und Naturschuz in
der europäischen Rechts- un Verwaltungsgeschichte (pp. 227-251). Baden-Baden: Nomos
Verlagsgesellschaft. (Abridged to 15p.)
This text discusses the roots of nature conservation in the Netherlands and especially the role
of some key figures such as JP Thijssen. Pay special attention to the tension between different
values and considerations in nature conservation.
If you would like to read more outside of the course:
Jamison, A., Eyerman, R., & Cramer, J. (1990). The making of the new environmental consciousness: A
comparative study of the environmental movement in Sweden, Denmark and the Netherlands.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
There is not a lot of material in English on the history of Dutch nature, environment or
environmental movement. This book contains a long chapter by Jacqueline Smit, former
Dutch minister of the environment, on the early development of the Dutch environmental
movement.
Van Zanden, J. L., & Verstegen, S. W. (1993). Groene geschiedenis van Nederland. Zeist: Spectrum.
Good historic overview of Dutch nature, environment, and their protection, in Dutch.
Halffman, W. (2003). Boundaries of Regulatory Science: Eco/toxicology and aquatic hazards of
chemicals in the US, England, and the Netherlands, 1970-1995. University of Amsterdam,
Amsterdam.
Describes the relation between two biological specialties (ecology and environmental
toxicology) and the development of environmental protection through the regulation of
environmental hazards of chemical substances. Chapter 3 deals with the take-off of
environmental protection around 1970.
Dresen, L. (2008). Van Schollervaarseiland tot Naardermeer. De Negentiende Eeuw, 32(4), 271-293.
Elegant study of early roots of Dutch nature conservation in the 19th century (in Dutch).
História da Biologia
Faculdade de Ciências
Universidade de Radboud - Nijmegen
Responsável: dr. W. Halffman
Contato: [email protected]
Código do curso: BB028B
Créditos: 3 ECTS (5 créditos)
Visão geral
Nas oitos palestras, os seguintes tópicos serão tratados:
1. História da biologia: por que e como? (Dissecando história dos gregos para a revolução
científica)
2. A classificação da natureza (ervas, Lineu e taxonomia, história natural)
3. Evolução (Lamarck, Darwin, biologia evolutiva)
4. O advento do laboratório (da alquimia a Pasteur e o estilo experimental)
5. Da geração a genética (herança, Mendel, moscas de fruta e eugenia)
6. A molecularização da biologia (A descoberta do DNA, mas também biologia
por Stalin)
7. Agricultura e medicina (Como biologia mudou o mundo e o mundo mudou a
biologia)
8. O advento do “meio ambiente” (ecologia, conservação, proteção do meio
ambiente e regulação)
Objetivo da aprendizagem
1.
2.
3.
4.
Por causa da importância do aprendizado de história nesse curso, os objetivos do curso
destacam a utilidade do conhecimento histórico para o entendimento de como a biologia
funciona hoje.
No fim do curso, você será capaz de:
Reconhecer conexões báscias e tensões entre a biologia e a sociedade através de
exemplos históricos, com intuito de melhor entender tais tensões nas práticas atuais da
biologia
Reconhecer e entender a variedade de estilos e organizações de pesquisa na pesquisa em
referência a básicos exemplos da história da biologia
Reconhecer e entender a importância de processos sociais (como fama, atenção seletiva)
para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa em nível básico
Entender como diferentes abordagens para a história e preocupações atuais afetam
como a história é apresentada, baseada em exemplos da história da biologia, em nível
básico
Formato do curso
Palestras
O eixo central do curso consiste em oito palestras. Essas palestras tem sido gravadas no
passado (em holandês), permitindo aos alunos que estudem as palestras em casa. O
contexto das palestras não mudaram desde o ano passado (exceto por algumas poucas
correções triviais e a implementação de alguns materiais visuais por causa de direitos
autorais). Infelizmente, essas gravações estão tecnicamente imperfeitas e os estudantes
deveriam apenas depender delas como back-up. Portanto, presença nas palestras não é
obrigatório, mas fortemente recomendado. Depois de cada palestra, os slides serão
postados na Blackboard (sistema do estudante online), assim como algumas
informações adicionais.
Discussão na Blackboard
Eu tentei fazer as palestras mais dinâmicas e interativas, mas infelizmente a interação
com grande número em anfiteatros é mais limitado que eu gostaria. Felizmente, o
Blackboard oferece ampla oportunidade de interagir. Após cada palestra, eu postarei um
conjunto de questões sobre a aula (palestra e textos de base). Essas questões são uma
boa indicação do tipo de questão que os estudantes terão no exame. Portanto, formular
uma resposta para essas questões é uma excelente oportunidade de se preparar para o
exame. Essa não é só uma opção: cada estudante é esperado que participe respondendo
as perguntas online. Isso significa que se os estudantes podem responder perguntas,
corrigir, anexar questões mais cedo e escrever respostas completamente novas e
reformuladas. Com intuito de dar a todos a oportunidade de responder questões,
estudantes serão divididos em grupos com separadas notas.
Materiais de ensino
Através do conteúdo do curso na Blackboard, você vai achar sugestões extras e dicas
para ajudar a estudar para esse curso, como a cronologia e a lista de nomes essenciais
para o curso (então, os estudantes sabem quais devem lembrar). Para ajudar a responder
a perguntas escritas (um tipo de pergunta, os alunos não estarão provavelmente
familiarizados), há um documento chamado “Como responder a 4 perguntas”. Isso
explica como estruturar respostas para as perguntas e explica porque respostas certas
não são necessariamente respostas suficientes
Leitura
No leitura com textos do curso, os estudantes encontrarão aproximadamente 40 paginas para ler
cada semana. Isso será bem difícil, porque vocês não estão familiarizados com esses tipos de
texto. Felizmente, história é cheia de histórias instigantes e a maioria desses textos devem na
verdade serem lidos como histórias. Contudo, isso será um desafio, especialmente se os
estudantes fizeram sua leitura semanalmente. Esses textos oferecerem conteúdo exta e detalhes
do material das palestras e ocasionalmente se expandem no material pelo qual não há nas
palestras. As perguntas semanalmente são uma boa indicação do que é importante sobre esses
textos e como ajudar portanto a focar na leitura.
Os alunos não precisam memorizar todos os detalhes, nomes e datas, mas devem ser capazes de
entender os processos na história da biologia e sua relação com os mais largos eventos
históricos. Isso não significa que você não precisa saber nenhuma data. Por exemplo, com
intuito de conectar Darwin à política da Inglaterra Vitoriana, você terá, no mínimo, que saber
que Darwin viveu no século XIX. Contudo, o fato que Origem das Espécies foi publicado
primeiro em 1859 é algo que deve ser facilmente gravado. Para ajudar a distinguir entre o que é
e o que não é importante, você deve olhar a cronologia e a lista de nomes.
Embora há saltos entre palestrar e textos, eles não necessariamente cobrem o mesmo tema e
você terá que ler os textos para trabalhar através de todo o material. O leitor é vendido via
sistema “ print on demand” do Centro de Notas em Palestras https://fnwi.ru-bestel.nl
Tutoriais
Metade do caminho do curso até o fim, haverão tutoriais opcionais onde todos discutirão
questões: questão e respostas da Blackboard, questões de exames e questões que os alunos
podem ainda ter sobre os materiais do curso.
Avaliação e notas
Prova escrita: 80% da nota
O exame escrito contém questões de múltipla-escolha e questões abertas. Os alunos acharão
uma amostra de um exame antigo na Blackboard. Você terá permissão de usar um dicionário em
inglês durante o exame (Um livro impresso, não um dicionário eletrônico nem uma
enciclopédia).
Participação nas discussões da Blackboard: 20% da nota
Essa é uma nota de participação: o quanto antes que você fizer esforço para participar
significativamente em responder as perguntas na Blackboard, você facilmente terá uma nota
decente. Contudo, se você não participar, o efeito na nota final é completamente drástico. Você
consegue a nota por um esforço em suas respostas e tente escrever réplicas bem desenvolvidas
(não somente uma linha). A norma é 5 respostas bem-desenvolvidas por aluno, mas você terá
pontos extras se responder mais questões. Os estudantes podem responder uma hora do teste ou
mesmo semanas depois da palestra e as notas finais só serão contadas depois do exame.
Contudo, eu insisto fortemente que os alunos trabalhem um pouco em cada questões cada
semana, então eles podem manter em dia com o material. É necessário lembrar que correções ou
adições nas respostas também contam. Isso é esforço coletivo.
Carga do curso
Carga do curso “História da Biologia”:
Créditos 3 ECTS (sendo 28 horas cada crédito)
Total = 84 horas sendo gastas no curso
Total de páginas a serem lidas: 320, sendo 7 páginas por horas = 46 horas de leitura.
Existem 10 encontros nesse curso, com um total de 20 horas. Outras partes (exame,
boletim etc) somarão mais 18 horas.
TOTAL: 84 HORAS
.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Teaching methods
•
32 hours guided group project work
•
67 hours computer course
•
9 hours lecture
•
4 hours student presentation
•
6 hours question session
•
50 hours individual study period
Pre-requisites
The course is open to all BSc and MSc students of the Faculty of Science and the
Faculty of Medical Sciences. Students of other faculties have to submit a
motivated request to participate in the course to the course coordinator. It is
expected that students have affinity with natural science issues. The course
material is English.
Objectives
The student can apply GIS concepts and technologies to analyse spatial problems
in biology and the environmental sciences.
Contents
GIS is an instrument (often a software package) that is used to study and analyse
spatial data. Some of the major issues facing society today have a geographical
component. This explains why GIS is used for a wide variety of applications and in
a wide variety of sectors, for example:
•
Production of (topographic) maps;
•
Route planners for cars and public transport;
•
Delivery of mail;
•
Studying the dispersal of diseases;
•
Analysis of pollutant dispersal;
•
Analysis of vegetation patterns in nature development areas;
•
Spatial planning (e.g., of cities and residential areas);
•
Percision bombings;
•
Studying the dispersal of species and genes.
This GIS Course familiarizes you with GIS concepts and technology. The course
focuses on GIS applications in biology and environmental studies. You will learn
to think "geographically" and apply GIS software. After the course you will be able
to recognize and indicate the capabilities of GIS for analysing biological and
environmental issues.
Subjects
•
Knowing GIS
•
Understanding GIS
•
Data Input
•
Data Handling
•
Data Output
•
Project
Examination
A combination of 3 written reports and a groups item.
Literature
Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius and Steve Carver, An introduction to Geographical
Information Systems, Prentice Hall (Pearson Education), Fourth Edition; ISBN 9780-273-72259-5. (Third or Second Editions can also be used.)
Extra information
This course will be taught in English
•
The course focuses on theory and mastering practical GIS skills.
•
The course ends with group project that lasts 5 working days.
•
The course runs on Thursdays and Fridays.
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/biology_bache
lor/course/37936/
Tradução em português
Sistemas de informação geográfica (GIS)
Metodologia de ensino
•
32 horas de grupo de trabalho guiado
•
67 horas de curso de computador
•
9 horas de palestras
•
4 horas de apresentação
•
6 horas de sessão de dúvidas
•
50 horas de estudo individual
Pré-requisistos
O curso é aberto a estudantes de bacharelado e de mestrado da faculdade de
ciências e da faculdade de medicina. Estudantes de outras faculdades tem que
submeter a solicitação de motivação para participar do curso para o coordenador
do curso. É esperado que os estudantes tenham afinidade com questões de
ciências naturais. O material do curso é em inglês.
Objetivos
O estudante pode aplicar conceitos do GIS e tecnologia para analisar problemas
espaciais em biologia e ciências ambientais.
Conteúdo
GIS é um instrumento (frequentemente um pacote de software) que é usado para
estudar e analisar os dados espaciais. Algumas das principais questões que
encaram a sociedade hoje tem um componente geográfico. Isso explica porque
GIS é usado para uma mais ampla variedade de aplicações e em uma ampla gama
de setores, por exemplo:
•
Produção de mapas topográficos;
•
Planejamento de rotas para carros e transporte público;
•
Entrega de correio;
•
Estudo de dispersão de doenças;
•
Análise de dispersão de poluentes;
•
Análise de padrões de vegetação em áreas de desenvolvimento natural;
•
Planejamento espacial (ex: cidades e áreas residenciais);
•
Bombardeio de precisão;
•
Estudo de dispersão de espécies e genes.
Este curso CIS familiariza você com os conceitos do GIS e sua tecnologia. O curso
foca nas aplicações do GIS nos estudos ambientais e biológicos. Você vai aprender
a pensar “geograficamente” e aplicar o software GIS. Depois do curso você será
capaz de reconhecer e indicar a capacidade do GIS de analisar questões
biológicas e ambientais.
Assuntos
•
Conhecendo o GIS
•
Entendendo o GIS
•
Implementação de dados
•
Lidando com os dados
•
Aplicação dos dados
•
Projetos
•
Avaliação
A combinação de 3 artigos escritos e um item em grupo.
Literatura
Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius and Steve Carver, An introduction to Geographical
Information Systems, Prentice Hall (Pearson Education), Fourth Edition; ISBN 9780-273-72259-5. (Third or Second Editions can also be used.)
Informação extra
O curso será ministrado em inglês
•
O curso foca na teoria e habilidades práticas com o GIS
•
O curso acaba com um projeto em grupo que dura 5 dias úteis
•
O curso ocorre às quintas e sextas.
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/biology_bache
lor/course/37936/
Applied Ecology
Teaching methods
•
8 hours excursion
•
38 hours lecture
•
3 hours student presentation
•
2 hours question session
•
2 hours problem session
•
109 hours individual study period
Pre-requisites
This course is tailored for third year biology / environmental science students. In
order to successfully accomplish the course, an adequate starting level is
required. This implies that basic biological definitions and principles will not be
explained in this course. Students without a biological background will therefore
have to put extra effort into the course. Specifically, the student is familiar with
ecological, biogeochemical, microbial and physiological basic principles.
Additionally, the student has experience in working individually as well as in a
team. Presentation skills (both oral and written) will be further developed in the
course through a set of assignments.
Objectives
After successfully finishing the course you are able to:
1. select a relevant environmental quality assessment systems based on biological
data for a given real-life case from nature and environmental management.
2. interpret the outcome of an environmental assessment system based on biological
data for a given real-life case from nature and environmental management.
3. formulate adequate measures that can enhance or conserve biological quality in
different types of systems threatened by anthropogenic activities.
4. argue in depthhow specific ecological feedback mechanisms enhance or decrease
the effectiveness of measures applied in nature and environmental management.
5. argue in detail which possibilities exist to treat liquid, solid, and gaseous waste
using fundamental knowledge of microbial processes.
Contents
The course deals with anthropogenic effects on ecosystems as well as measures
to improve environmental and ecological quality. Different restoration measures
as well as measures aiming at reducing the anthropogenic impact on specific
ecosystems will be discussed. After this course you will oversee the gamut of
measures available to enhance or conserve biological quality in terrestrial and
aquatic systems. In addition, several biological and environmental quality
assessments will be studied.
Examination
The final grade is composed of a grade for a written exam (80%), a written group
assignment (10%) and an oral presentation (10%). All parts need to be finished
with a five and a half (5.5), in order to pass.
Literature
Introductory notes and literature will be provided via Black Board
Extra information
This course will be taught in English
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/biology_bache
lor/course/37911/
Tradução:
Ecologia aplicada
Metodologia de ensino
•
8 horas de excursão
•
38 horas de palestras
•
3 horas de apresentações
•
2 horas de sessão de perguntas question session
•
2 horas de sessão de problematização problem session
•
109 horas de leitura e estudo individual
Pre-requisitos
Este curso é reservado para estudantes do terceiro ano de ciências ambientais e
biologia. Com intuito de realizar com sucesso o curso, um nível inicial adequado é
exigido. Isso implica que definições biológicas básicas e princípios não serão
explicados no curso. Estudantes sem base biológica terá portanto esforço extra
durante o curso. Especificamente, o estudante deve estar familiarizado com
princípios básicos ecológicos, biogeoquímicos, microbianos e fisiológicos.
Adicionalmente, o estudante tem experiência em trabalhar individualmente assim
como em grupo. Habilidade de apresentação (tanto oral como escrita) serão
também desenvolvidas no curso através de um conjunto de tarefas.
Objetivos
Após finalizar com sucesso o curso, você será capaz de:
1. Selecionar sistemas de tarefas qualitativas relevantes do ponto de vista
ambiental baseado em dados biológicos para casos reais vindos da natureza e do
manejo ambiental.
2. Interpretar os resultados de sistemas de tarefas ambientais baseados em dados
biológicos através de casos reais vindos da natureza e do manejo ambiental.
3. Formular medidas adequadas que podem potencializar e conservar a qualidade
biológica em diferentes tipos de sistemas ameaçados por atividade
antropogênica.
4. Discutir específicos e profundos mecanismos de feedback ecológico que
potencializam ou diminuem a efetividade de medidas aplicadas à natureza e o
manejo ambiental
5. Discutir em detalhes que possibilidades existem ao tratar perda líquida, sólida e
gasosa usando conhecimento fundamental de processos microbianos.
Conteúdo
O curso lida com efeitos antropogênicos em ecossistemas assim como mede o
avanço da qualidade ecológica e ambiental. Diferentes medidas de restauração
assim como auxílio de medidas em reduzir impacto antropogênico em específicos
ecossistemas serão discutidos. Depois do curso você vai se orientar por uma gama
de medidas disponíveis para potencializar ou conservar a qualidade biológica
sistemas terrestres e aquáticos. Além disso, muitas tarefas de qualidade biológica
e ambiental serão estudadas.
Avaliação
A nota final é composta de uma nota para o exame escrito (80%), uma tarefa
escrita em grupo (10%) e uma apresentação oral (10%). Todas as partes precisam
ser finalizadas com cinco e meio (5,5) para a aprovação.
Literatura
Notas introdutórias e literatura será oferecida via Black Board
Informação extra
Esse curso será dato em Inglês
European Vegetation
Teaching methods
•
16 hours lecture
Objectives
This Master class will present a wide ranges of subjects dealing with vegetation
ecology in an European context. Not only principles and methods of modern
vegetation research will be treated but also its application in nature policy and
nature conservation. Depending on actual themes and the availability of guest
speakers, the definitive program of this Master course will be known not earlier
than two or three months before the course begins.
Contents
The Master class gives a synopsis of a wide range of subjects in nowadays
vegetation research, based on a 'journey' along the diversity of biomes in Europe.
We will outline the major European ecosystems ranging from tundra's in the
north, steppes in de southeast, atlantic bogs in the west, Mediterranean
heathlands and central European forests and grasslands. In connection to each
biome, a major topic in vegetation ecology and nature conservation will be paid
attention to, like water management, carbon dioxide fixation, climate change
and the preservation of semi-natural, rural plant communities. Special focus will
be on the use of large data bases and information systems in recent vegetation
research, a new field of interest, called eco-informatics. The course will open
with some insight in the geological and historical backgrounds and will be
concluded with a discussion on future prospects, including the topic of
international nature policy (Natura 2000).
Examination
Essay
Extra information
The lecture series (3 EC’s) consists of nine or ten lectures of two hours, of which
the first one will cover general aspects of the ‘biome of the day’, the second one
- presented by an invited guest lecturer - a more specific item connected to this
subject. As this Master course is a joint course with Wageningen University, the
meetings will be alternating in Nijmegen and Wageningen; the venue of 2015 will
be announced. The lectures will be given in the first months of the new year
(January-March).
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/WaterandEnvironment_biol
ogie_master/course/38005/
Tradução em português
Vegetação Europeia
Metodologia de ensino
•
16 horas de palestra
Objetivos
Essas aulas de mestrado fornecerão alta gama de assuntos que lidam com
ecologia da vegetação no contexto europeu. Não só princípios e métodos de
pesquisa da vegetação moderna serão tratadas mas também sua aplicação na
política florestal e conservação da natureza. Dependendo dos temas atuais e a
disponibilidade de palestrantes, o programa definitivo desse curso de mestrado
será oferecido não mais cedo que dois ou três meses antes do curso começar.
Conteúdo
As aulas de mestrado dão uma sinopse de alta variedade de assuntos na pesquisa
da vegetação atual, baseada em uma jornada em direção à diversidade de biomas
europeus. Nós delinearemos os principais ecossistemas europeus variando da
tundra no norte, estepes no sudeste, pântanos atlânticos no leste, charnecas e
florestas e gramados do centro europeu. Em conexão com cada bioma, um tópico
principal na ecologia da vegetação e conservação da natureza serão evidenciados
como maneja hídrico, fixação de dióxido de carbono, mudanças climáticas e
preservação das comunidades rurais de plantas. Foco especial será dada no uso
de bases de dados e sistema de informação na recente pesquisa de vegetação,
um novo campo de interesse, chamado eco-informática. O curso será aberto com
alguns insights de bases geológicas e históricas e será concluído com discussões
de prospecto futuros, incluindo o tópico de políticas ambientais internacionais
(Natura 2000).
Avaliação
Redação
Informação extra
As séries de palestras (3 ECTS) consistem de nove ou dez palestras de 2 horas, em
cada qual o primeiro cobrirá aspectos gerais do bioma do dia, o segundo –
apresentado por um palestrante convidado – um mais item específico conectado
ao assunto. Como esse curso de mestrado é um curso ligado a Universidade de
Wageningen, os encontros serão alternados em Nijmegen e Wageningen. O local
de 2015 será anunciado em breve. As palestras serão dadas nos primeiros meses
do ano novo (Janeiro e março)
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/WaterandEnvironment_biol
ogie_master/course/38005/
Scientific English for Masterstudents
Teaching methods
•
12 hours problem session
•
72 hours individual study period
Extra information teaching methods
There are seminars each week during the first half of the course and every other
week during the second half of the course.
Pre-requisites
It is important that participants are actually writing their thesis or internship
report during the course.
Objectives
The course's main objective is to offer students the knowledge and skills needed
to produce and edit a good academic text in English.
Specific learning objectives: On completion of the course:
•
You will be able to correct and avoid a number of common grammatical mistakes
•
You will be able to correctly apply the English rules of punctuation
•
You will be able to use the required academic vocabulary and appropriate
academic style in your text(s)
•
You will be aware of the differences between British and American spelling
•
You will be able to analyse the structure of the different parts of an academic
text and apply these to the description of your own research (introduction,
methods, results, discussion)
•
You will be able to recognise, correct or avoid a number of common problems
related to sentence structure
•
You will understand the different elements of a good paragraph
•
You will be able to write and rewrite paragraphs independently to improve
readability
Contents
This course is held every quarter (please take note that there is a minimum and a
maximum number op participants, see "Extra Information"). and is only available
to students in the writing stage of their research. The seminars not only deal with
the more technical aspects of English (grammar, academic vocabulary,
punctuation and spelling) but also teach you how the different elements of an
academic text work, how to construct and link sentences and paragraphs and how
to edit your own and other people's work.
Examination
Required attendance, active participation and completion of both the
independent study and writing assignments.
Extra information
This course will be scheduled several times during the year, once in quarter 1, 2
and 3. In quater 4, two courses will be organised. Please take a look at the
schedule (SWS/Persoonlijk rooster).
If fewer than 10 students participate, the course will be cancelled. However, in
that case you're invited to subscribe for the next round.
There is a maximimum of 15 participants per course. If this maximum is reached,
you'll be placed on an waiting list. Pleas note that placement on this waiting list
does not mean you are automatically subscribed for the next course! You have to
actively subsicribe yourself again.
In 2015-2016 this course will be organised five times: once in each quarter, and
in quarter four it will be organised with two groups (so 30 participants in total) if
there is sufficient interest.
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/Allgeneralcourses/course/3
6914/
Tradução em português
Inglês científico para estudantes de mestrado
Metodologia de ensino
•
12 horas de sessões de dúvidas
•
72 horas de estudo individual
Informações extras da metodologia de ensino
Existem seminários toda semana durante a primeira metade do curso e todas as
outras semanas na segunda metade do curso.
Pré-requisitos
É importante que os participantes estejam na verdade escrevendo suas teses ou
relatórios do estágio durante o curso.
Objetivos
O principal objetivo do curso é oferecer a estudantes o conhecimento e
habilidades necessárias para produzir e editar um bom texto acadêmico em
inglês.
Objetivo de aprendizado específico: Ao longo do curso:
•
Você será capaz de corrigir e evitar um número de erros comuns gramaticais
•
Você será capaz de aplicar corretamente as regras do inglês na pontuação
•
Você será capaz de usar o vocabulário acadêmico exigido e apropriar o estilo
acadêmico em seu texto
•
Você estará ciente das diferenças entre a escrita britânica e americana
•
Você será capaz de analisar a estrutura de diferentes partes de um texto
acadêmico e aplicar essas a descrição de sua própria pesquisa (introdução,
métodos, resultados e discussão)
•
Você será capaz de reconhecer, corrigir e evitar um número de problemas
comuns relacionados a estrutura de frases
•
Você entenderá os diferentes elementos de um bom parágrafo
•
Você será capaz de escrever e reescrever parágrafos independemente de
melhorar a legibilidade
Conteúdo
Esse curso é dado em cada bimestre (por favor, note que há um mínimo e um
máximo número de participantes, seja “na informação extra”) e é só disponível
para estudantes em estágio de escrita de sua pesquisa. Os seminários não só
lidam com aspectos técnicos do inglês (gramática, vocabulário acadêmico,
pontuação e ortografia) mas também ensinam você como elementos diferentes de
um texto acadêmico funciona, como estruturar e ligar sentenças e parágrafos e
como editar seu próprio e o trabalho de outras pessoas.
Avaliação
Presença exigida, participação ativa e complementação do estudo independente
e tarefas de escrita.
Informação extra
Esse curso será marcado muitas vezes durante o ano, uma vez no bimestre 1, 2 e
3. No quarto, dois cursos serão organizados. Por favor, dois cursos serão
organizados. Por favor, dê uma olhada nos horários (SWS, Persoonlijk rooster)
Se menos de 10 alunos participarem, o curso será cancelado. Contudo, nesse caso
você será convidado a se matricular da próxima vez.
Há um número máximo de 15 participantes por curso. Se esse máximo é atingido,
você ficará na lista de espera. Por favor, note que a alocação nessa lista de
espera não significa que você está automaticamente inscrito para o próximo
curso! Você tem que se matricular ativamente de novo.
Em 2015-2016, esse curso será organizado 5 vezes, uma em cada bimestre e no
quarto será organizado dois grupos com 30 participantes no total se há
interessados suficientemente.
http://www.studiegids.science.ru.nl/2015/en/science/prospectus/Allgeneralcourses/course/3
6914/