Eur J Appl Physiol (2004) 92: 518–523
DOI 10.1007/s00421-004-1073-x
O R I GI N A L A R T IC L E
Ralph Beneke Æ Thorsten Beyer Æ Christoph Jachner
Jürgen Erasmus Æ Matthias Hütler
Energetics of karate kumite
Accepted: 27 January 2004 / Published online: 20 May 2004
Springer-Verlag 2004
Abstract It is speculated that anaerobic metabolism is
the predominant source of energy in karate kumite.
However, no experimental proof is currently available.
The metabolic cost and fractions of aerobic and anaerobic energy of karate kumite ﬁghting were investigated.
Ten male nationally or internationally ranked karateka
[means (SD) age 26.9 (3.8) years, height 1.80 (0.08) m,
mass 77.2 (12.8) kg] performed two to four ﬁghts
scheduled and judged like a championship. Oxygen
uptake was measured continuously with a portable spirometric device. Blood lactate was determined immediately before, and minute by minute after, each ﬁght.
Aerobic, anaerobic alactic and anaerobic lactic energy
were calculated from oxygen uptake during the ﬁght
(VO2), the fast component of the post-ﬁght oxygen
uptake (VO2PCr) above resting values and changes in
blood lactate concentration (Net-BLC), respectively.
Altogether, 36 ﬁghts lasting 267 (61) s were analysed.
The referee’s decisions caused an activity-to-break ratio
of approximately 2:1. VO2, VO2PCr, and Net-BLC per
ﬁght were 165.3 (52.4) ml.kg)1, 32.2 (7.2) ml.kg)1and 4.2
(1.9) mmol.l)1; the overall energy cost above rest was
334.3 (86.3) kJ per ﬁght. Fractions of aerobic, anaerobic
alactic, and lactic energy sources were 77.8 (5.8)%, 16.0
R. Beneke (&)
Department of Biological Sciences,
Centre for Sports and Exercise Science,
University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park,
CO4 3SQ Colchester, England
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel.: +44-1206-872530
Fax: 44-1206-872592
T. Beyer Æ C. Jachner
Institute of Sports Medicine,
Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
J. Erasmus
State Department of Sports Medicine,
Berlin, Germany
M. Hütler
Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
(4.6)%, and 6.2 (2.4)%, respectively. The results indicate
a high metabolic rate in karate kumite. However, the
acyclic activity proﬁle implies that aerobic metabolism is
the predominant source of energy and there is anaerobic
supplementation, mainly by high-energy phosphates.
Keywords Metabolism Æ Oxygen Æ Lactate Æ
High-energy phosphates
Introduction
Karate kumite is a non-contact ﬁghting event. Successful
athletes have excellent technical and tactical skills but
also high ﬁtness levels (Lehmann 1996; Lehmann and
Jedliczka 1998). The metabolic proﬁle of karate kumite
results from forward, backward and sidesteps, and
hopping movements, all of which constitute relatively
low-intensity basic activity, together with short-lasting
techniques of attack or defence, which are considered to
be performed with maximum intensity. Such sequences
of activity are interrupted by breaks decided by the
referee.
Overall karate kumite ﬁghting is ranked as a highintensity event (Baker and Bell 1990) and, consequently,
anaerobic metabolism has been considered to be the
predominant source of energy in this sport (Lehmann
and Jedliczka 1998; Schmidt and Perry 1976). This
assumption was based on both the observation that
karate ﬁghting has an activity pattern comparable to
interval training (Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998) and by
attempts to simulate karate by bouts of 60 leg or arm
attack techniques per minute without interruption
(Baker and Bell 1990). The latter activity proﬁle was
diﬀerent and lasted a shorter time than would karate
kumite ﬁghting (Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998). Also,
measurements taken during training sessions of kata or
kumite (Francescato et al. 1995; Imamura et al. 1999,
2002, 2003; Shaw and Deutsch 1982; Zehr and Sale
1993) were not comparable to real kumite ﬁghting.
519
Therefore, the hypothesis that karate kumite is an
event dominated by anaerobic metabolism has not been
proven yet and the energy cost of karate kumite ﬁghting
is still unknown. The present study investigated the
metabolic proﬁle of karate kumite based on measures
enabling assessment of aerobic and anaerobic energy
metabolism (Beneke et al. 2002).
Methods
Ten male nationally or internationally ranked karateka
[mean (SD) age: 26.9 (3.8) years, height: 1.80 (0.08) m,
and body mass: 77.2 (12.8) kg] participated in the study.
Four athletes were in immediate preparation for the
European Championship. All athletes participated in the
National Championship 6 weeks later. They were
informed about reasons and risks of the measurements
and signed informed consents conforming to internationally accepted policy statements on the use of human
subjects, as approved by the local ethics committee.
All athletes had been familiarized with the test procedures at an earlier date. All tests were conducted at
similar times in the afternoon, on separate days and at
least 2 h after a light meal. The subjects were instructed
to prepare themselves as they usually would for a top
event. After an individual warm up, each subject performed two to four ﬁghts scheduled and judged like the
qualiﬁcation round of a National Championship. The
planned time intervals between separate ﬁghts were
17 min (ﬁghts 1 and 2), 15 min (ﬁghts 2 and 3) and
9 min (ﬁghts 3 and 4), which was almost identical to the
corresponding ﬁghts of the qualiﬁcation round of the
National Championship of the previous year (Beneke
et al. 1999). Finals were not considered because the time
interval between the qualiﬁcation and ﬁnal rounds was
found to be rather variable and lengthy (up to 6 h).
Each ﬁght was recorded on videotape so as to enable
analysis of the performance proﬁle with respect to lowintensity basic activity, that is, forward, backward and
sidesteps, and hopping movements (BA) and maximumintensity actions such as short-lasting techniques of attack or defence (MA) or breaks due to the referee’s
decisions (BR). Oxygen uptake (V_ O2) and carbon
dioxide production (V_ CO2) were continuously measured
with a portable breath-by-breath spirometric system
(Metamax, Cortex, Germany) up to the 10th min post
ﬁghting or till the start of the ﬁnal ﬁght. Before, immediately after a ﬁght and subsequently minute by minute,
up to the 10th (9th, before ﬁnal ﬁght) post-ﬁght minute,
20 ll capillary blood were collected from the hyperaemic
ear lobe for enzymatic-amperometric blood lactate
(BLC) determination from haemolysed blood (Ebio
plus, Eppendorf, Germany).
Net aerobic energy (WAER) was calculated from VO2
above rest, caloric equivalent and body mass by using:
WAER (J.kg)1) =VO2 (ml.kg)1) · caloric equivalent
(J.ml)1). In a pre-ﬁght situation it would be extremely
ambitious to measure the resting V_ O2 irrespective
of the body position and the duration of the period
of measurement. Therefore, resting was deﬁned as a
standing position, which is equivalent to a V_ O2 of
4.5 ml kg)1 min)1 (Ciba-Geigy 1985). Anaerobic lactic
energy (WBLC) was determined from the highest change
in the blood lactate concentration (Net-BLC) and body
mass by using: WBLC (J.kg)1) = Net-BLC (mmol.l)1) ·
O2-lactate equivalent (ml.kg)1.mmol)1.l) · caloric
equivalent (J.ml)1) (Beneke et al. 2002). A caloric
equivalent of 21.131 J ml)1 was used, corresponding to
a respiratory exchange ratio >1.0 (Stegemann 1991).
Under the assumption of a distribution space of lactate
of approximately 45% of the body mass, the O2-lactate
equivalent is 3.0 ml.kg)1.mmol)1.l (di Prampero 1981).
Repayment of high energy phosphates (WPCR) was assumed to correspond to the fast component of the postexercise oxygen uptake (VO2PCr) and calculated from the
latter and body mass by: WPCR (J.kg)1) =VO2PCr
(ml.kg)1) · caloric equivalent (J.ml)1) (Beneke et al.
2002; Knuttgen 1970; Roberts and Morton 1978). The
total average metabolic energy WTOT was calculated as:
WTOT=WPCr+WBLC+WAER, the total average power
[PTOT (W.kg)1)] and fractions derived from anaerobic
[PPCr (W.kg)1) and PBLC (W.kg)1)] and aerobic energy
[PAER (W.kg)1)] were deﬁned as the corresponding
amounts of energy divided by the duration of the ﬁght.
Data are reported as mean values and standard
deviations (SD). Diﬀerences between subsequent ﬁghts
were tested with a one way ANOVA with Bonferroni
post hoc analysis. The diﬀerences between WAER, WBLC
and WPCR were tested using a MANOVA model with
the source of energy as within factor and a paired t-test
for post hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment.
Interrelationships between variables were analysed by
linear and non-linear regression models. For all statistics, the signiﬁcance level was set at P<0.05.
Results
In total, 36 ﬁghts were analysed (Table 1). One subject
had to terminate the event after the ﬁrst and one further
subject after the third ﬁght. Reasons were an injury in
subject one and technical failure of the spirometric system in the other athlete. On average the ﬁghts lasted 267
(61) s each with 17.8 (2.2) min, 15.4 (1.4) min and 9.3
(0.7) min breaks between ﬁghts 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 3
and 4, respectively. The referee’s decisions caused an
activity-to-break ratio of approximately two to one,
from 18 (6) s activity and 9 (6) s break phases. Activity
phases contained 16.3 (5.1) high intensity actions per
ﬁght lasting 1–3 s each, which resulted in 3.4 (2.0) high
intensity actions per minute.
VO2 per ﬁght was 165.3 (52.4) ml.kg)1. The average
post-ﬁght BLC was 7.7 (1.9) mmol.l)1, resulting from a
Net-BLC of 4.2 (1.9) mmol.l)1. VO2PCr was 32.2
(7.2) ml.kg)1. WTOT was 334.3 (86.3) kJ per ﬁght. WAER
[262.2 (78.3) kJ] was higher (P<0.01) than WPCR [51.7
(12.4) kJ], which was also higher (P<0.01) than WBLC
520
Table 1 Performance, and metabolic response to subsequent
karate kumite ﬁghts scheduled like a qualiﬁcation round of a
National Championship. TimeTOT Duration of a total ﬁght;
TimeNET cumulative duration of active phases of a ﬁght; Net-action
rate number of high intensity actions per minute of activity;
BLCPRE blood lactate concentration before a ﬁght; Net-BLC difference between BLCPRE and highest post ﬁght BLC; VO2 cumulative oxygen uptake above rest during a ﬁght; VO2PCR VO2
equivalent to the fast component of the post ﬁght VO2; WBLC
anaerobic lactic energy corresponding to Net-BLC; WPCR anaerobic alactic energy corresponding to VO2PCr; WAER aerobic
energy corresponding to VO2; WTOT cumulated energy
(WPCr+WBLC+WAER);PPCR anaerobic alactic power (WPCR·TimeTOT)1); PBLC anaerobic lactic power (WBLC.·TimeTOT)1); PAER
aerobic power (WAER·TimeTOT)1); PTOT average total power
(WTOT·TimeTOT)1)
Fight
1 (n=10)
2 (n=9)
3 (n=9)
4 (n=8)
Signiﬁcance
TimeTOT (s)
TimeNET (s)
Net-action rate (min)1)
BLCPRE (mmol l)1)
Net-BLC (mmol l)1)
V_ O2 (ml kg-)1)
V_ O2PCR (ml kg)1)
WBLC (kJ)
WPCR (kJ)
WAER (kJ)
WTOT (kJ)
PBLC (W kg)1)
PPCR (W kg)1)
PAER (W kg)1)
PTOT (W kg)1)
260 (55)
179 (39)
4.0 (1.9)
1.7 (0.6)
5.9 (1.6)
165.1 (43.4)
32.8 (7.4)
28.3 (7.8)
52.6 (9.9)
267.4 (69.8)
348.3 (74.5)
1.48 (0.46)
2.93 (1.56)
13.37 (2.09)
17.78 (3.05)
243 (35)
187 (13)
3.2 (2.0)
3.1 (1.2)
5.0 (1.2)
164.2 (27.2)
35.5 (5.8)
23.5 (4.6)
56.2 (11.8)
258.8 (49.8)
338.5 (55.8)
1.31 (0.26)
3.17 (0.87)
14.28 (1.18)
18.76 (1.65)
277 (85)
176 (32)
3.8 (2.4)
4.1 (1.5)*
3.3 (1.2)*
163.2 (60.9)
30.3 (7.1)
15.5 (5.1)
48.6 (13.0)
256.2 (87.2)
320.3 (99.1)
0.79 (0.28)*
2.42 (0.62)
12.36 (2.34)
15.57 (2.63)
290 (61)
176 (27)
2.4 (1.2)
5.4 (2.5)*,**
2.4 (1.5)*,**
168.6 (60.9)
29.9 (8.2)
12.3 (8.4)**
48.8 (15.4)
266.6 (113.0)
327.7 (12.1)
0.55 (0.34)*,**
2.21 (0.56)
11.88 (3.11)
14.64 (3.04)
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
P<0.001
P<0.001
n.s.
n.s.
P<0.001
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
P<0.001
n.s.
n.s.
P<0.01
* Signiﬁcant diﬀerence from the ﬁght 1 condition
** Signiﬁcant diﬀerence from the ﬁght 2 condition
[20.3 (9.0) kJ]. The pre ﬁght BLC (BLCPRE) was lower
(P<0.001), and Net-BLC and PBLC were higher
(P<0.001) in ﬁghts 1 and 2 than in ﬁghts 3 and 4,
respectively (Table 1). Related to WTOT, the fractions of
WAER, WPCR, and WBLC were 77.8 (5.8)%, 16.0 (4.6)%,
and 6.2 (2.4)%, respectively. Figure 1 shows the metabolic proﬁle of a typical ﬁght.
PBLC and PPCR were positively related to actions per
minute (Figs. 2, 3) and negatively correlated to the
duration of ﬁght interruptions (r=)0.45, P<0.01,
y=)0.45ln x+2.0 and r=)0.52, P<0.01, y=8.4/
x+1.6). From ﬁght to ﬁght, BLCPRE increased more or
less linearly (r=0.68, P<0.01, y=1.21x+0.53) and was
negatively related to break duration between ﬁghts
(r=)0.55, P< 0.01, y=)0.005x+8.082). Nevertheless,
post-ﬁght BLC remained unchanged, resulting in a ﬁghtrelated decrease of the PTOT and of the fraction of PBLC
(Table 1, Figs. 4 and 5) whilst PPCR and PAER were not
interrelated with the ﬁght number.
Discussion
The present study is the ﬁrst to investigate the energetics
of karate kumite based on measures of aerobic and
anaerobic metabolism during simulated ﬁghting. Considering the metabolic cost and the activity-to-break
ratio, the results indicate that karate kumite is based on
activities that require a high metabolic rate. Nevertheless, contrary to the previously published hypothesis
(Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998; Schmidt and Perry 1976),
the overall metabolism of karate kumite is aerobically
dominated. This implies that the acyclic activity proﬁle
of frequent forward, backward and sidesteps, and
hopping movements, combined with short bouts of extreme techniques with a high energy requirement, followed by short ﬁght interruptions, cause a metabolic
proﬁle in which aerobic metabolism is the predominant
source of energy and anaerobic supplementation is
mainly by high-energy phosphates.
The anaerobic component of karate kumite ﬁghting,
especially the use of high energy phosphates, may be
even less than calculated because the fast component of
the post-ﬁght V_ O2 may represent not only the repayment of the WPCr but also the replenishment of oxygen
stores (Margaria et al. 1933). The potential overestimation of the WPCr up to 8.5 kJ (Astrand and Rodahl
1986) makes an aerobic fraction of the overall energy of
81% feasible.
Calculation of an overall metabolic proﬁle partly
based on an averaged ﬁghting V_ O2 and pre- and postﬁght BLC values respectively, does not take into account
the interval-like activity pattern of karate kumite ﬁghting. This limitation is caused by the fact that a more
detailed assessment of the energy metabolism during
each ﬁghting phase is impossible. Subsequent short
bouts of ﬁghting activity (18 s) and breaks (9 s) are
too short to allow for a meaningful analysis of the corresponding onset and oﬀset of the V_ O2-kinetics and NetBLC values or the use of alternative measurements.
Consequently, during the acute ﬁghting activity an athlete may generate a higher metabolic rate, combined
with an acutely higher relative anaerobic contribution,
than the calculations based on the present experimental
approach would suggest. This higher rate of anaerobic
metabolism during ﬁghting activities may be combined
with an aerobic compensation due to an increased aerobic metabolic rate not only during the post ﬁght period
521
Fig. 1 Metabolic proﬁle of a typical karate kumite ﬁght modelled
based on the present results. The ﬁght lasts 261 s with 10 bouts of
basic activity, each lasting 18 s and requiring a VO2 of 156 ml kg)1
above rest, and 16 phases of maximum intensity activity equivalent
to 58 J kg)1 each. BA periods are separated by breaks of 9 s with
an elevated post-activity V_ O2; WTOT, WAER, WBLC and WPCr are
4,226 J kg)1, 3,373 J kg)1, 266 J kg)1 and 587 J kg)1, respectively.
Anaerobic MA: anaerobic power for maximum intensity activity
lasting 2 s, anaerobic BA: anaerobic power for basic activity;
aerobic BA: aerobic power for basic activity; VO2fast BR: payback
of PCr and oxygen stores according to the fast component of VO2
during breaks between BA periods; VO2fast post: payback of PCr
and oxygen stores according to the fast component of VO2 post
ﬁght; VO2slow BR and post: increased metabolic rate corresponding
to the slow component of VO2 during break and post ﬁght
Fig. 3 Anaerobic alactic power (PPCr) is interrelated with the
number of high-intensity actions per minute of activity (Net-action
rate)
but also during the breaks between the two subsequent
bouts of ﬁghting activity within a ﬁght. Nevertheless, the
present results about the overall duration, the cumulative duration of active phases, the number of highintensity actions per minute of activity and the overall
metabolic proﬁle enabled us to model both the interval-
like pattern of the activity and the metabolic proﬁle for
these short subunits of a typical karate kumite ﬁght
(Fig. 1). The duration of BA periods is too short to
reach full adaptation of the V_ O2. The resulting deﬁcit of
aerobic energy is increased by MA. Depending on the
progression of the ﬁght and the number of MAs per
active ﬁghting period, the deﬁcit of aerobic energy is
between 30% and 67%, with an average of 40%.
Approximately 50% of this lack of aerobic energy is
compensated for by the increased metabolic rate during
the subsequent breaks. This requires further compensation by Net-BLC and WPCr, as calculated in the present
results.
The present study simulated conditions typical of a
qualiﬁcation round in a National Championship. The
Fig. 2 Anaerobic lactic power (PBLC) is interrelated with the
number of high-intensity actions per minute of activity (Net-action
rate)
Fig. 4 Average total metabolic power (PTOT) decreases with the
increase of the number of ﬁght
522
Fig. 5 Anaerobic lactic power (PBLC) decreases with the increase of
the number of ﬁght
simulation successfully mirrored a championship schedule with respect to the number and the duration of the
ﬁghts and the activity-to-break ratio during, and the
breaks between, the ﬁghts at such events (Beneke et al.
1999; Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998). However, during
the simulation the number of attacking and defending
actions was 30–50% lower then that observed under real
championship conditions (Beneke et al. 1999; Lehmann
and Jedliczka 1998). The latter may explain why under
championship conditions the BLC was mostly found to
be between 10 and 40% higher than that after simulated
ﬁghting (Beneke et al. 1999; Lehmann 1996; Lehmann
and Jedliczka 1998). Only one investigation observed
15% lower values in the qualiﬁcation round of a
National Championship (Mohr 1994).
The eﬀect of a 50% increase of the number of high
intensity actions per ﬁght may be approximated based
on the interrelationship between PPCR and PBLC and
counted high-intensity actions per minute (Figs. 2, 3).
The resulting increase of WBLC and WPCR per ﬁght
would be in the region of 31% and 22%, respectively.
Even under the rather unlikely assumption that the latter increase of anaerobic metabolic rate would occur
without a corresponding increase of aerobic metabolism,
the higher level of activity in a real ﬁght would cause
only a slight increase of the fraction of the anaerobic
energy to an overall ratio of 7.4% anaerobic lactic and
17.9% anaerobic alactic, but still 74.7% aerobic. Thus,
even when taking into consideration the potentially
higher number of high-intensity attack and defence
techniques per ﬁght, the overall metabolic proﬁle
remains predominantly aerobic.
PTOT decreased slightly after the second ﬁght
(Table 1, Fig. 4). This was caused by a signiﬁcant decrease
of PBLC (Table 1, Fig. 5) in combination with a tendency to increase in the fraction of aerobic metabolism,
although the absolute rates of anaerobic alactic and
aerobic metabolism were unchanged. This modulation
of the metabolic proﬁle during subsequent ﬁghts had no
eﬀect on the post-ﬁght BLC, which seems to indicate
that the reduction in the use of WBLC was an eﬀect of the
BLCPRE rather than a consequence of a voluntarily
change in the ﬁghting strategy.
Whilst the BLCPRE of the ﬁrst ﬁght was more or less
in the range of resting BLC levels, even during the break
of about 18 min between ﬁghts 1 and 2, the BLC could
only decrease to 3 mmol l)1. Considering the typical
behaviour of the BLC during a post-exercise period the
latter is not a surprise. The halftime of BLC disappearance is usually expected to be about 15 min
(Asmussen 1950; Davies et al. 1970; Margaria et al. 1933;
Margaria and Edwards 1934). Extensive tests identiﬁed an
interrelationship between the velocity of the post-exercise
disappearance and the maximum value of the BLC (Freund et al. 1986; McLellan and Skinner 1982). For postexercise values of the BLC in the range of
3–20 mmol l)1, an interrelationship between the latter and
the time constant of the disappearance (s) was shown
(Heck 1990) to be s (min)=9.8 (min mmol)1)+0.932 BLC
(mmol l)1), (r=0.76) . Based on the latter, the post-ﬁght
BLC value should have been reduced by 63% after
16 min. This is fairly similar to the observed BLC
decrease after ﬁght 1 and also explains the lower relative
decreases of the BLC after ﬁghts 2 and 3, with 55% and
30%, respectively.
BLCPRE values of 4.4 mmol l)1 and 5.5 mmol l)1 at
ﬁghts 3 and 4 may have already impaired the activity of
glycolytic enzymes and thus reduced the ability to provide anaerobic lactic energy. In the present simulation
this mechanism may have been slightly facilitated by the
passive rests between subsequent ﬁghts, which were
somehow artiﬁcial compared to usual activities between
separate ﬁghts. Compared to active recovery, passive
resting is known to utilize less lactate (Belcastro and
Bonen 1975; Dodd et al. 1984; Stamford et al. 1981).
Nevertheless, it seems to be unlikely that this limitation
aﬀected the general results about the metabolic proﬁle to
a relevant extent because increases of the BLCPRE of
consecutive ﬁghts were also found under real championship conditions (Lehmann and Jedliczka 1998).
Comparable to the present results, these changes seemed
to have almost no eﬀect on the post-ﬁght BLC values.
In conclusion, the present study is the ﬁrst successful
approach to analyse the metabolic proﬁle of karate
kumite based on the measurement of the BLC and V_ O2
pre, during and post ﬁghting in a valid simulation of
such an event in top class athletes. The results demonstrate that karate kumite ﬁghting contains activities that
require a high metabolic rate. Nevertheless, contrary to
the previously published hypothesis, the overall metabolism of karate kumite is not anaerobically dominated.
The acyclic activity proﬁle that includes more or less
frequent forward, backward and sidesteps, and hopping
movements, combined with short bouts of extreme
techniques that have high-energy requirements and
subsequent short breaks, cause a metabolic proﬁle in
which aerobic metabolism is the predominant source of
523
energy and where anaerobic supplementation is mainly
by high-energy phosphates.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully thank R.M. Leithäuser
for many stimulating discussions and her helpful comments on
earlier drafts. This research was supported by the Deutscher Karate
Verband e.V.
References
Asmussen J (1950) Pyruvate and lactate content of the blood
during and after work. Acta Physiol Scand 10:125–132
Astrand PO, Rodahl K (1986) Textbook of work physiology.
Physiological basis of exercise. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp
295–353
Baker JS, Bell W (1990) Energy expenditure during simulated
karate competition. J Hum Mov Stud 19:69–74
Belcastro AN, Bonen A (1975) Lactic acid removal rates during
controlled and uncontrolled recovery exercise. J Appl Physiol
39:932–936
Beneke R, Beyer T, Jachner C, Erasmus J, Leithäuser RM, Hütler
M (1999) Der Kumitewettkampf (Karate kumite ﬁghting). In:
Beneke R, Beyer T, Jachner C, Erasmus J, Leithäuser RM,
Hütler M (eds) Das leistungsphysiologische Proﬁl der Sportart
Karate. Projektbeschreibung (Teil II) (Physiological proﬁle of
the event karate. Project report, Part II). Berliner Karate Verband, Berlin, pp 14–26
Beneke R, Pollmann C, Bleif I, Leithäuser RM, Hütler M (2002)
How anaerobic is the Wingate anaerobic test for humans? Eur
J Appl Physiol 87:388–392
Ciba-Geigy (1985) Wissenschaftliche Tabellen Geigy. Teilband
Körperﬂüssigkeiten. (Scientiﬁc tables Geigy, Volume body ﬂuids). Ciba-Geigy, Basel, pp 225–228
Davies CTM, Knibbs AV, Musgrove J (1970) The rate of acid
removal in relation to diﬀerent baselines of recovery exercise.
Int Z Angew Physiol 28:155–161
Dodd S, Powers KS, Callender T, Brooks E (1984) Blood lactate
disappearance at various intensities of recovery from exercise.
J Appl Physiol 57:1462–1465
Francescato MP, Talon T, di Prampero PE (1995) Energy cost and
energy sources in karate. Eur J Appl Physiol 71:355–361
Freund H, Oyono-Enguelle S, Heitz A, Marbach J, Ott C, Zouloumain P, Lampert E (1986) Work rate-dependent lactate
kinetics after exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 61:932–939
Heck H (1990) Laktat in der Leistungsdiagnostik (Lactate in performance testing). Wissenschaftliche Schriftenreihe des deutschen Sportbundes. Verlag Karl Hofmann, Schorndorf, pp 176
Imamura H, Yoshimura Y, Nishimura S, Nakazawa AT,
Nishimura C, Shirota T (1999) Oxygen uptake, heart rate, and
blood lactate responses during and following karate training.
Med Sci Sports Exerc 31:342–347
Imamura H, Yoshimura Y, Nishimura S, Nakazawa AT, Teshima
K, Nishimura C, Miyamoto N (2002) Physiological responses
during and following karate training in women. J Sports Med
Phys Fitness 42:431–437
Imamura H, Yoshitaka Y, Nishimura S, Nishimura C, Sakamoto
K (2003) Oxygen uptake, heart rate, and blood lactate
responses during 1,000 punches and 1,000 kicks in female collegiate practioners. J Physiol Anthropol 22:111–114
Knuttgen HG (1970) Oxygen debt after submaximal exercise.
J Appl Physiol 29:651–657
Lehmann G (1996) Untersuchungen zu Komponenten des Ausdauertrainings in Kampfsportarten (Investigations about components of endurance training in ﬁghting events).
Leistungssport 26(4):6–11
Lehmann G, Jedliczka G (1998) Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung
und Entwicklung eines sportartspeziﬁschen konditionellen
Anforderungsproﬁls im Hochleistungstraining der Sportart
Karate (Investigations about the event speciﬁc proﬁle of
karate). Leistungssport 28(3):56–61
Margaria R, Edwards HT, Dill DB (1933) The possible mechanisms of contracting and paying the oxygen debt and the role of
lactic acid in muscular contraction. Am J Physiol 106:689–715
Margaria R, Edwards HT (1934) The removal of lactic acid from
the body during recovery from muscular exercise. Am J Physiol
107:681–686
McLellan TM, Skinner JS (1982) Blood lactate removal during
active recovery related to the anaerobic threshold. Int J Sports
Med 3:224–229
Mohr G (1994) Periodisierung bezogen auf das Anforderungsproﬁl
im Kumite Shiai anhand der WM Trainingsplanung 1994
(Periodization with respect to the performance proﬁle of kumite
shiai). In Seminarunterlagen zum 1. Master-Seminar, pp 14–35
Prampero PE di (1981) Energetics of muscular exercise. Rev
Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 89:143–222
Roberts AD, Morton AR (1978) Total and alactic oxygen debts
after supramaximal work. Eur J Appl Physiol 38:281–289
Schmidt RJ, Perry JG (1976) Cardiac cost and heart rate response
of karate kumite. Jpn J Phys Educ 21:117–122
Shaw DK, Deutsch DT (1982) Heart rate and oxygen uptake
response to performance of karate kata. J Sports Med 22:461–
468
Stamford BA, Weltman A, Moﬀatt R, Sady S (1981) Exercise
recovery above and below anaerobic threshold following maximal work. J Appl Physiol 51:840–844
Stegemann J (1991) Leistungsphysiologie. Physiologische Grundlagen der Arbeit und des Sports (Physiological basics of exercise). Thieme, Stuttgart
Zehr EP, Sale DG (1993) Oxygen uptake, heart rate and blood
lactate responses to the chito-ryu seisan kata in skilled karate
practitioners. Int J Sports Med 14:269–274