Bird Conservation in Brazil
MIGUEL ÂNGELO MARINI∗ AND FREDERICO INNECCO GARCIA
Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade de Brası́lia, Brası́lia, D.F., 70.910-900, Brasil
Abstract: Brazil has one of the richest avifaunas in the world, with recent estimates varying from 1696 to
1731 species. About 10% (193 taxa) of these are threatened. The Amazon has the highest number of species,
followed by the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado; most of Brazil’s endemic birds, however, are in the Atlantic
Forest. Brazil’s threatened species occur mostly in the Atlantic Forest, especially in the southeast lowlands and the
northeast. The Cerrado has the second highest number of threatened species. The two major threats to Brazilian
birds are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation and hunting, most especially for illegal commerce. A
number of conservation and research initiatives over the last 20 years have significantly improved our capacity
to address and resolve major issues for bird conservation. Brazil requires a National Bird Conservation Plan
to draw up priorities for research and conservation over the next decade.
Conservación de Aves en Brasil
Resumen: Brasil tiene una de las avifaunas más ricas del mundo, con estimaciones recientes que varı́an
entre 1696 y 1731 especies. Cerca de 10% (193 taxa) de ellas están amenazadas. El Amazonas tiene el mayor
número de especies, seguido por el Bosque Atlántico y el Cerrado; sin embargo, la mayorı́a de las aves endémicas
de Brasil se encuentran en el Bosque Atlántico. Las especies amenazadas de Brasil ocurren principalmente en
el Bosque Atlántico, especialmente en las tierras bajas del sureste y del noreste. El Cerrado tiene el segundo
número mayor de especies amenazadas. Las dos principales amenazas a las aves brasileñas son la pérdida,
degradación, y fragmentación del hábitat y la caceria—especialmente para el comercio ilegal. Numerosas
iniciativas de conservación e investigación en los últimos 20 años han mejorado significativamente nuestra
capacidad para abordar y resolver temas importantes para la conservación de aves. Brasil requiere un Plan
Nacional de Conservación de Aves para definir prioridades de investigación y conservación para la siguiente
década.
Introduction
Brazil harbors one of the most diversified bird faunas in the world, with species estimated at more than
1690 (CBRO 2003; IUCN 2004; NatureServe 2004). This
amounts to about 57% of the bird species recorded for
all of South America. More than 10% of these species
are endemic to Brazil, making it one of the most important countries for conservation investments (Sick
1993).
Human intervention has significantly affected the bird
species that inhabit Brazilian natural ecosystems. Bird re-
sponses to these alterations range from those that have
benefited from the habitat alterations and increased their
populations (e.g., Great Kiskadee [Pitangus sulphuratus]) to those that have become extinct in the wild
(e.g., Razor-billed Curassow [Mitu mitu] and Glaucous
Macaw [Anodorhynchus glaucus]). Within the Neotropics, Brazil contains the highest number of threatened bird
species (Collar et al. 1997).
We analyzed the distribution of Brazilian birds and
the number and distribution of threatened species. We
discuss the major present and future threats and provide an overview of the major conservation and research
∗ email
[email protected]
Paper submitted December 30, 2004; revised manuscript accepted February 3, 2005.
665
Conservation Biology, Pages 665–671
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005
666
Bird Conservation in Brazil
Marini & Garcia
Table 1. Numbers of bird species, endemic species, and threatened taxa (species and subspecies) in Brazil and by biome.
Threatened taxaa
Biome
Amazon
Atlantic Forest
Cerrado
Caatinga
Southern Grasslands
Pantanal
Coastal and marine
Total Brazil
Species
Endemic
species
total
endemic
to biome
endemic
to Brazil
1,300b
1,020c
837d
510f
476c
463h
>130i
1,696–1,731j
263b
188c
36e
15g
2c
0
0
504
20
112
48
25
20
13
23
193
6
54
14
7
3
0
0
84
10
90
14
15
0
1
0
119
a IBAMA
2003; IUCN 2004.
et al. 2003.
c MMA 2000.
d Silva 1995.
e Silva 1995; Cavalcanti 1999; Silva & Bates 2002; Lopes 2004.
f Silva et al. 2003.
g Universidade Federal de Pernambuco et al. 2002.
h Tubelis & Tomas 2003.
i Vooren & Brusque 1999.
j CBRO 2003; IUCN 2004; NatureServe 2004.
b Mittermeier
initiatives. Finally, we outline the need for an integrated
program of research and conservation for threatened bird
species in Brazil.
Composition and Distribution of Brazilian Birds
The two areas with the highest number of bird species
and the highest levels of endemism are the Amazon and
the Atlantic Forest. Ninety-two percent of Brazilian bird
species are resident species; only 8% are migrant species
(Sick 1993). The distribution of resident bird species
throughout Brazil is uneven, and most of the species diversity is centered in the Amazon and the Atlantic Forest,
two biomes that originally were covered mostly by humid forests. The highest number of resident bird species
(1300) and highest rates of endemism (20%) occur in the
Amazon (Mittermeier et al. 2003), followed by the Atlantic Forest, with 1020 species (18% endemics; Table 1)
(MMA 2000).
The Cerrado, dominated by a savanna-like vegetation, is
the third richest biome, with 837 species (4.3% endemic)
(Silva 1995; Cavalcanti 1999; Silva & Bates 2002; Lopes
2004). Caatinga, a dry forest vegetation in northeastern
Brazil, has 510 bird species (2.9% endemics) (Silva et al.
2003), and the southern grasslands, an expansion of the
Argentinean Pampas into Brazil, have 476 species and only
0.4% endemism (MMA 2000). The Pantanal, the largest
South American wetland (Harris et al. 2005 [this issue]),
has 463 species but no endemic species (Tubelis & Tomas
2003). Finally, about 130 species of typically marine fam-
Conservation Biology
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005
ilies inhabit the coastal and marine habitats, but none are
endemic to Brazil (Sick 1993; Vooren & Brusque 1999).
Most migrant birds (61%) come from the northern
hemisphere and are aquatic birds that migrate over long
distances and congregate seasonally along the coast or
major river drainages. Because of international collaboration and a well-designed banding system, these migrants have been well studied. In contrast, little is known
about the migratory routes and ranges within Brazil of
terrestrial northern migrants such as the Veery (Catharus
fuscescens) and Swainson’s Thrush (Catharus ustulatus)
(Remsen 2001). Southern migratory species represent
39% of the migrant species and include Hudson’s Black
Tyrant (Knipolegus hudsoni). Their winter range is usually concentrated in southern Brazil, but their movements
and natural history are comparatively less studied than
those of the northern migrants (Sick 1993).
Number and Distribution of Threatened Species
We used two lists to define the number of threatened
bird species in Brazil: the IUCN Red List of globally threatened species (124 species; IUCN 2004) and the Brazilian
Red List of nationally threatened species (160 species;
IBAMA 2003). Merging these two lists yielded a total of
193 threatened species and subspecies: 124 are globally
threatened (IUCN 2004) and 69 are nationally threatened
(IBAMA 2003). Among the nationally threatened birds, 25
are species, of which 10 are endemic to Brazil, and 44 are
subspecies, all of which are endemic to Brazil. Of these
Marini & Garcia
Bird Conservation in Brazil
Table 2. Number of Atlantic Forest bird taxa (species and subspecies)
by Atlantic Forest region.
Number of threatened taxa
Atlantic Forest region
total
endemic to
Atlantic
Forest
Lowlands southeast
Northeast
Mountains southeast
Southern Planalto
Total
52
51
29
11
112
34
13
9
2
54
endemic
to Brazil
44
45
13
4
90
193 threatened birds, 119 (62%) are restricted to Brazil
(Table 1). The Atlantic Forest contains 75.6% of Brazil’s
endemic threatened species, making it the most critical
biome in Brazil for bird conservation. Other areas where
threatened endemic birds occur are the Cerrado (11.8%),
the Caatinga (12.6%), the Amazon (8.4%), and the Pantanal (0.8%) (Table 1). The distribution of threatened bird
species that are endemic to particular biomes shows a
pattern similar to that of all threatened species, although
their concentration is even greater in the Atlantic Forest
(64.3%). Some are found in the Cerrado (16.7%) and the
Caatinga (16.7%) and fewer are found in the other biomes
(Table 1).
Based on BirdLife International’s (2003) classification,
Brazil has 63 threatened species with restricted ranges
in 24 endemic bird areas (EBAs) and secondary areas.
All Brazilian biomes except the Pantanal contain some
EBAs. Most EBAs lie within the Atlantic Forest, which
also contains a high concentration of endemic threatened
species, making it a high priority for conservation (Collar
et al. 1997). Four regions in the Atlantic Forest are priorities for threatened birds: the southeastern lowlands, the
southeastern mountains, the northeastern lowlands and
Atlantic slope, and the southern Planaltos. Between 29
and 52 threatened taxa occur in the first three regions,
and 11 occur in the southern Planaltos (Table 2). Of these
four regions, the most important area for conservation action is the southeastern lowlands. This area contains 46%
(52 species) of the 112 threatened taxa of the biome,
34 of them endemic to the Atlantic Forest. The situation
in northeastern Brazil is especially dire because it contains 51 threatened taxa, including 13 species endemic to
the Atlantic Forest and 26 endemic threatened subspecies
that remain in a few small forest fragments (Teixeira 1986;
IBAMA 2003). The recently discovered Pigmy Owl (Glaucidium mooreorum) from the northeast is not included
in either list and is apparently on the brink of extinction
(Silva et al. 2002).
The Cerrado ranks second in the numbers of threatened
species and threatened endemics (Table 1). Nearly 80%
667
of its natural vegetation has been converted (Myers et al.
2000), largely to intensive pasture and widespread mechanized agriculture (Klink et al. 1993; Stotz et al. 1996;
Klink & Moreira 2002). Recent estimates suggest that remaining natural habitat will be largely destroyed by 2030
if current rates of destruction continue (Machado et al.
2004).
Major Present and Future Threats
The major threat to Brazilian birds is habitat loss and fragmentation. Among the 124 Brazilian species on the IUCN
Red List (IUCN 2004), 111 (89.5%) face habitat loss or
degradation as one of the major threats, followed by overharvesting (35.5%). Other threats include invasive alien
species and pollution (14%), human disturbance and accidental mortality (9.5%), changes in native species dynamics (6.5% each), natural disasters (5%), and persecution
(1.5%).
Studies of the effects of forest fragmentation on Brazilian birds were pioneered by Willis (1979), who looked
at three forest patches in the Atlantic Forest in the state
of São Paulo. The first long-term study, begun north of
Manaus in 1979 by the Biological Dynamics of Forest
Fragments Project (PDBFF), monitored avian communities before and after fragmentation (Bierregaard et al.
1992; Bierregaard & Stouffer 1997; Stouffer & Borges
2001). In the past decade, several studies on forest
fragmentation in the Atlantic Forest have expanded on
the Willis study, including Aleixo and Vielliard (1995),
Machado (1995), Maldonado-Coelho and Marini (2003),
Marsden et al. (2001), Galetti et al. (2003), and Ribon et al. (2003). In the Cerrado, Christiansen and Pitter (1997) and Marini (2001) confirmed species loss in
smaller forest fragments, and Andrade and Marini (2001)
demonstrated that movements among forest patches decreased in forest-dependent birds. No studies have evaluated habitat fragmentation on birds in the open habitats of the Caatinga, Cerrado, Pantanal, and Southern
Grasslands.
Illegal international trade of birds and wildlife is a major activity in Brazil (Lacava 2000; Renctas 2002). The
Glaucous Macaw and Spix’s Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii)
became extinct largely because of illegal trade, and parakeets, parrots, and other macaws are also heavily traded
(Guix et al. 1997; Wright et al. 2001). Around 12 million animals are traded every year in Brazil (Lacava 2000).
They are caught at 229 sites and sold in 264 cities—
mostly in northern Brazil—affecting mainly Amazonian
but also Caatinga and Cerrado birds (Renctas 2002). Care
and release of the enormous numbers of birds confiscated
by the authorities is a problem because there are few
appropriately planned translocation programs (Marini &
Conservation Biology
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005
668
Bird Conservation in Brazil
Marinho-Filho 2005). Most are released in inappropriate
places (outside their natural geographic ranges) and without a proper health evaluation, and the effects of these
releases is unknown. Solving the problem of wildlife trade
requires law enforcement in the countries of origin and
in the destination countries—mainly the United States,
Saudi Arabia, Japan, and Europe.
Conservation and Research Initiatives
The Brazilian ornithological community has provided
structure for and organization of research. The Brazilian
Ornithological Society (SBO) has sponsored annual meetings since 1991, and has published a dedicated journal
(Ararajuba, Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia) since 1990
(more than 300 articles). The SBO has also set up the
Brazilian Committee of Ornithological Records (CBRO) to
accumulate, review, and analyze reports of new species
and new records and localities for Brazil. Brazil has a national banding center (National Center for the Study and
Conservation of Birds [CEMAVE]), which regulates and
provides permits and free metal bands to registered ornithologists and supports numerous research and conservation projects.
One of the most successful endangered species programs in Brazil is the Blue Macaw Project in the Pantanal,
created in 1991. IBAMA has established eight committees (and has plans for more) to develop and monitor
conservation strategies for the following species: Alagoas
Curassow (Mitu [Crax] mitu); the Red-billed Curassow
(Crax blumenbachii); the Brazilian Merganser (Mergus
octosetaceus); Lear’s Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari); the
Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus); Spix’s
Macaw; and the Golden Conure (Guaruba guarouba). A
separate committee also monitors albatrosses and petrels
(23 species). BirdLife Brasil has established a program devoted to “important bird areas” (IBAs), focusing mostly
on the Atlantic Forest.
Several institutions have projects and programs that
contribute to bird conservation and research, including the Ministry of the Environment; the National Institute for Amazon Research (INPA); PDBFF of INPA and
the Smithsonian Institution (Bierregaard et al. 2001);
and the Brazilian Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER)
project (Pesquisas Ecológicas de Longa Duração [PELD]).
The PELD is funded by the Brazilian Science Council
(CNPq) and the Ministry of Science and Technology
(MCT) through FINEP and the Ministry of the Environment, with nine sites in almost all Brazilian biomes. Also,
the Ministry of the Environment’s Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Brazilian Biological Diversity (PROBIO) finances projects on specific conservation
themes each year (e.g., MMA 2003). Over the last decade,
Conservation Biology
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005
Marini & Garcia
the Ministry of the Environment (2002) and some state
governments have organized priority-setting workshops,
and the participation of ornithologists has been consistently influential in the selection of conservation areas.
Renctas is a Brazilian nongovernmental organization that
monitors and helps in taking rapid action against the illegal trade of wildlife.
Some Brazilian states have compiled their own red lists
of threatened species, which are of enormous value in
promoting awareness of the plight of the state’s fauna
and flora and in influencing and guiding conservation
measures. States with lists include Minas Gerais (Machado
et al. 1998), São Paulo (São Paulo 1998), Rio de Janeiro
(Bergallo et al. 2000), Rio Grande do Sul (Fontana et al.
2003), and the recently updated from Paraná (Mikich &
Bérnils 2004).
The greatest challenge facing Brazilian ornithologists is
the lack of information on the basic biology of the rare
species and the increasing number of threatened species.
Also, 19 new bird species, primarily passerines, have been
described in Brazil since 1990, mostly from the Atlantic
Forest (Table 3), at a rate of more than 1 species per
year. Our knowledge of the biology and ecology of Brazilian birds was summarized by Sick (1985; English version
1993; revised and extended Portuguese edition 1997), but
basic information on many species is meager or nonexistent. Of the 36 birds endemic to the Cerrado (Silva 1995),
for example, only 6 have been studied in the field for at
least 1 year. Inventories and taxonomic studies are still
required for almost all the regions.
Conclusions
In the last 20 years, many institutions and professionals
have adopted research approaches that directly tackle
conservation issues, and the ornithological and conservation communities have provided the means to study, plan,
and take a hands-on approach to conserving Brazil’s rich
and increasingly threatened avifauna. We know which
species are threatened, what their key threats are, and
where they should be preserved. Information on new
species and the biology of old and new species, however, is lacking. Research and conservation measures are
still unevenly distributed among regions and species, and
threats are not diminishing. Brazil requires a major National Bird Conservation Plan that would organize and
set priorities for the activities of different institutions and
professionals, define needs for future research and capacity building, establish national priorities for conserving
and managing threatened species and important conservation areas, and promote public policies to improve the
protection of birds.
Marini & Garcia
Bird Conservation in Brazil
669
Table 3. Bird species described from Brazil between 1990 and 2004.
Species
Biome
Cercomacra manu
Formicivora littoralis
Asthenes luizae
Clytoctantes atrogularis
Phylloscartes kronei
Chordeiles vielliardi
Stymphalornis acutirostris
Phylloscartes beckeri
Synallaxis whitneyi
Hylexetastes brigidae
Acrobatornis fonsecai
Arremon franciscanus
Antilophia bokermani
Scytalopus iraiensis
Herpsilochmus sellowi
Suiriri islerorum
Glaucidium moororum
Micrastur mintoni
Thamnophilus divisorius
∗ Threat
Amazon
Atlantic Forest
Cerrado
Amazon
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Atlantic Forest
Atlantic Forest
Atlantic Forest
Amazon
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Cerrado
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Cerrado
Atlantic Forest
Amazon and Atlantic Forest
Amazon
Threat
status∗
Reference
—
CR
VU
CR
VU
—
EN
EN
VU
—
VU
—
CR
EN
—
—
CR
—
—
Fitzpatrick & Willard 1990
Gonzaga & Pacheco 1990
Vielliard 1990
Lanyon et al. 1990
Willis & Oniki 1992
Lencioni-Neto 1994
Bornschein et al. 1995
Gonzaga & Pacheco 1995
Pacheco & Gonzaga 1995
Silva et al. 1995
Pacheco et al. 1996
Raposo 1997
Coelho & Silva 1998
Bornschein et al. 1998
Whitney et al. 2000
Zimmer et al. 2001
Silva et al. 2002
Whittaker 2002
Whitney et al. 2004
status: CR, critically endangered; VU, vulnerable; EN, endangered.
Acknowledgments
We thank J. M. C. da Silva, K. Brandon, A. Rylands, and an
anonymous referee for useful comments. M.Â.M. is supported by a fellowship from CNPq and F.I.G. is supported
by a fellowship from Conservation International.
Literature Cited
Aleixo, A., and J. M. E. Vielliard. 1995. Composição e dinâmica da avifauna da mata de Santa Genebra, Campinas, São Paulo, Brasil. Revista
Brasileira de Zoologia 12:493–511 (in Portuguese).
Andrade, R. D., and M. Â. Marini. 2001. Movement of birds in natural
forest patches in southeast Brazil. Pages 125–136 in J. L. B. Albuquerque, J. F. Cândido Jr., F. C. Straube, and A. L. Ross, editors. Ornitologia e conservação: da ciência às estratégias. Editora UNISUL,
Tubarão, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
Bergallo, H. G., C. F. D. Rocha, M. A. S. Alves, and M. Van Sluys, editors.
2000. A fauna ameaçada de extinção do estado do Rio de Janeiro.
Editora da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro
(in Portuguese).
Bierregaard, R. O., Jr., and P. C. Stouffer. 1997. Understory birds and
dynamic habitat mosaics in Amazonian rainforests. Pages 138–155
in W. F. Laurance and R. O. Bierregaard Jr., editors. Tropical forest
remnants: ecology, management, and conservation of fragmented
communities. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
Bierregaard, R. O., Jr., C. Gascon, T. E. Lovejoy, and R. C. G. Mesquita.
2001. Lessons from Amazonia: the ecology and conservation of a
fragmented forest. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
Bierregaard, R. O., Jr., T. E. Lovejoy, V. Kapos, A. A. Santos, and R. W.
Hutchings. 1992. The biological dynamics of tropical forest fragments. BioScience 42:859–866.
BirdLife International. 2003. World bird database: the site for bird conservation. Version 2.0. BirdLife International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Available from http://www.birdlife.org (accessed December
2004).
Bornschein, M. R., B. L. Reinert, and M. Pichorim. 1998. Descrição,
ecologia e conservação de um novo Scytalopus (Rhinocryptidae)
do sul do Brasil, com comentários sobre a morfologia da famı́lia.
Ararajuba 6:3–36 (in Portuguese).
Bornschein, M. R., B. L. Reinert, and D. M. Teixeira. 1995. Um novo
Formicariidae do sul do Brasil (Aves, Passeriformes). Publicação
Técnico-Cientı́fica do Instituto Iguaçu de Pesquisa e Preservação
Ambiental 1:1–18 (in Portuguese).
Cavalcanti, R. B. 1999. Bird species richness and conservation in the
cerrado region of central Brazil. Studies in Avian Biology 19:244–
249.
CBRO (Comitê Brasileiro de Registros Ornitológicos). 2003. Web site (in
Portuguese). CBRO, São Paulo. Available from http://www.ib.usp.br/
cbro (accessed November 2004).
Christiansen, M. B., and E. Pitter. 1997. Species loss in a forest bird
community near Lagoa Santa in southeastern Brazil. Biological Conservation 80:23–32.
Coelho, G., and W. Silva. 1998. A new species of Antilophia (Passeriformes: Pipridae) from Chapada do Araripe, Ceará, Brazil. Ararajuba
6:81–84.
Collar, N., D. C. Wege, and A. J. Long. 1997. Patterns and causes of endangerment in the New World avifauna. Ornithological Monographs
48: 237–260.
Fitzpatrick, J. W., and D. E. Willard. 1990. Cercomacra manu, a new
species of antbird from southwestern Amazonia. Auk 107:239–245.
Fontana, C. S., G. A. Bencke, and R. E. Reis, editors. 2003. Livro vermelho
da fauna ameaçada de extinção no Rio Grande do Sul. EDIPUCRS,
Porto Alegre, Brasil (in Portuguese).
Galetti, M., C. P. Alves-Costa, and E. Cazetta. 2003. Effects of forest fragmentation, anthropogenic edges and fruit colour on the consumption of ornithocoric fruits. Biological Conservation 111:269–273.
Gonzaga, L. A. P., and J. F. Pacheco. 1990. Two new subspecies of Formicivora serrana (Hellmayr) from southeastern Brazil, and notes on
the type locality of Formicivora deluzae (Ménétries). Bulletin of the
British Ornithologists’ Club 110:187–193.
Gonzaga, L. A. P., and J. F. Pacheco. 1995. A new species of Phylloscartes
(Tyrannidae) from the mountains of southern Bahia, Brazil. Bulletin
of the British Ornithologists’ Club 115:88–97.
Guix, J. C., L. Jover, and X. Ruiz. 1997. Muestreos del comercio de
Conservation Biology
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005
670
Bird Conservation in Brazil
psitácidos neotropicales en la ciudad de Barcelona, España: 1991–
1996. Ararajuba 5:159–167 (in Spanish).
Harris, M. B., W. Tomas, G. Mourão, C. J. da Silva, E. Guimarães, F. Sonoda, and E. Facchini. 2005. Challenges to safeguard the Pantanal
wetlands, Brazil: threats and conservation initiatives. Conservation
Biology 19:714–720.
IBAMA (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais
Renováveis). 2003. Lista das espécies da fauna ameaçada de extinção.
Instrução Normativa n◦ 3, de 27 de maio de 2003 (in Portuguese).
IBAMA, Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brası́lia.
IUCN ( World Conservation Union). 2004. 2004 IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN Species Survival Commission, Gland, Switzerland. Available from http://www.redlist.org (accessed December
2004).
Klink, C. A., and A. G. Moreira. 2002. Past and current human occupation, and land use. Pages 69–88 in M. S. Oliveira and R. J. Marquis,
editors. The Cerrados of Brazil: ecology and natural history of a
Neotropical savanna. Columbia University Press, New York.
Klink, C. A., A. G. Moreira, and O. T. Solbrig. 1993. Ecological impact
of agricultural development in the Brazilian cerrados. Pages 259–
282 in M. D. Young and O. T. Solbrig, editors. The world’s savannas:
economic driving forces, ecological constraints and policy options
for sustainable land use. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization, Paris.
Lacava, U., coordinator. 2000. Tráfico de animais silvestres no Brasil: um
diagnóstico preliminar. World Wide Fund for Nature-Brasil, Brası́lia
(in Portuguese).
Lanyon, S. M., D. F. Stotz, and D. E. Willard. 1990. Clytoctantes atrogularis, a new species of antbird from western Brazil. Wilson Bulletin
102:571–580.
Lencioni-Neto, F. 1994. Une nouvelle espèce de Chordeiles (Aves,
Caprimulgidae) de Bahia (Brésil). Alauda 62:241–245 (in French).
Lopes, L. E. 2004. Biologia comparada de Suiriri affinis e Suiriri islerorum (Aves: Tyrannidae) no cerrado do Brasil central. M.S. thesis.
Universidade de Brası́lia, Brası́lia (in Portuguese).
Machado, R. B. 1995. Padrão de fragmentação da Mata Atlântica em
três municı́pios da Bacia do Rio Doce (Minas Gerais) e suas conseqüências para a avifauna. M. S. thesis. Universidade Federal de
Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil (in Portuguese).
Machado, A. B. M., G. A. B. da Fonseca, R. B. Machado, L. M. S. Aguiar, and
L. V. Lins. 1998. Livro vermelho das espécies ameaçadas de extinção
da fauna de Minas Gerais. Fundação Biodiversitas, Belo Horizonte,
Brasil (in Portuguese).
Machado, R. B., M. B. R. Neto, P. G. P. Pereira, E. F. Caldas, D. A. Gonçalves,
N. S. Santos, K. Tabor, and M. Steininger. 2004. Estimativas de perda
de área do Cerrado brasileiro. Conservation International, Brası́lia
(in Portuguese).
Maldonado-Coelho, M., and M. Â. Marini. 2003. Mixed-species bird
flocks from Brazilian Atlantic Forest: the effects of forest fragmentation on their size, richness, and stability. Biological Conservation
116:19–26.
Marini, M. Â. 2001. Effects of forest fragmentation on birds of the Cerrado region, Brazil. Bird Conservation International 11:11–23.
Marini, M. Â., and J. S. Marinho-Filho. 2005. Translocação de aves e
mamı́feros: teoria e prática no Brasil. In press in C. F. D. Rocha,
H. G. Bergallo, M. Van Sluys, and M. A. S. Alves, editors. Biologia
da conservação. programa de ecologia, manejo e conservação de
ecossistemas do sudeste do Brasil. Universidade Estadual do Rio de
Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro (in Portuguese).
Marsden, S. J., M. Whiffin, and M. Galetti. 2001. Bird diversity and abundance in forest fragments and Eucalyptus plantations around an Atlantic Forest reserve, Brazil. Biodiversity and Conservation 10:737–
751.
Mikich, S. B., and R. S. Bérnils. 2004. Livro vermelho da fauna ameaçada
no estado do Paraná. Instituto Ambiental do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
(in Portuguese).
Mittermeier, R. A., C. G. Mittermeier, T. M. Brooks, J. D. Pilgrim, W. R.
Conservation Biology
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005
Marini & Garcia
Konstant, G. A. B. da Fonseca, and C. Kormos. 2003. Wilderness and
biodiversity conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Science 100:10309–10313.
MMA (Ministério do Meio Ambiente). 2000. Avaliação e ações prioritárias para a conservação da biodiversidade da Mata Atlântica
e Campos Sulinos. Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas, MMA,
Brası́lia (in Portuguese).
MMA (Ministério do Meio Ambiente). 2002. Biodiversidade Brasileira:
avaliação e identificação de ações prioritárias para a conservação,
utilização sustentável e repartição dos benefı́cios da biodiversidade
Brasileira. Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas, MMA, Brası́lia (in
Portuguese).
MMA (Ministério do Meio Ambiente). 2003. Fragmentação de ecossistemas: causas, efeitos sobre a biodiversidade e recomendações de
polı́ticas públicas. Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Florestas, MMA,
Brası́lia (in Portuguese).
Myers, N., R. A. Mittermeier, C. G. Mittermeier, G. A. B. da Fonseca,
and J. Kent. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities.
Nature, London 403:853–858.
NatureServe. 2004. InfoNatura: birds, mammals, and amphibians of Latin
América ( Web application). Version 3.2. NatureServe, Arlington,
Virginia. Available from http//www.natureserve.org/infonatura. (accessed December 2004).
Pacheco, J. F., and L. P. Gonzaga. 1995. A new species of Synallaxis of the
ruficapilla/infuscata complex from eastern Brazil (Passeriformes:
Furnariidae). Ararajuba 3:3–11.
Pacheco, J. F., B. M. Whitney, and L. P. Gonzaga. 1996. A new genus
and species of furnariid (Aves:Furnariidae) from the cocoa-growing
region of southeastern Bahia, Brazil. Wilson Bulletin 108:397–433.
Raposo, M. A. 1997. A new species of Arremon (Passeriformes: Emberizidae) from Brazil. Ararajuba 5:3–9.
Remsen, Jr., J.V. 2001. True winter range of the Veery (Catharus
fuscescens): lessons for determining winter ranges of species that
winter in the tropics. Auk 118:838–848.
Renctas (Rede Nacional de Combate ao Tráfico de Animais Silvestres).
2002. 1◦ relatório nacional sobre o tráfico de fauna silvestre. Renctas,
Brası́lia (in Portuguese).
Ribon, R., J. E. Simon, and G. T. Mattos. 2003. Bird extinctions in Atlantic
Forest fragments of the Viçosa region, southeastern Brazil. Conservation Biology 17:1827–1839.
São Paulo. 1998. Fauna ameaçada no estado de São Paulo. Série Documentos Ambientais. Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, São Paulo (in
Portuguese).
Sick, H. 1985. Ornitologia brasileira: uma introdução. Editora da Universidade de Brası́lia, Brası́lia (in Portuguese).
Sick, H. 1993. Birds in Brazil: a natural history. Princeton University
Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Sick, H. 1997. Ornitologia brasileira: uma introdução. Editora Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro (in Portuguese).
Silva, J. M. C. 1995. Birds of the Cerrado region, South America. Steenstrupia 21:69–92.
Silva, J. M. C., and J. M. Bates. 2002. Biogeographic patterns and conservation in the South American Cerrado: a tropical savanna hotspot.
BioScience 52:225–233.
Silva, J. M. C., G. Coelho, and L. P. Gonzaga. 2002. Discovered on the
brink of extinction: a new species of pigmy owl (Strigidae: Glaucidium) from Atlantic Forest of northeastern Brazil. Ararajuba 10:123–
130.
Silva, J. M. C., F. C. Novaes, and D. C. Oren. 1995. A new species of
the genus Hylexetastes (Dendrocolaptidae) from eastern Amazonia.
Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 115:200–206.
Silva, J. M. C., M. A. Souza, A. G. D. Bieber, and C. J. Carlos. 2003.
Aves da Caatinga: status, uso do habitat e sensitividade. Pages 237–
273 in I. R. Leal, M. Tabarelli, and J. M. C. Silva, editors. Ecologia e
conservação da Caatinga. Editora Universitária, Universidade Federal
de Pernambuco, Recife, Brasil (in Portuguese).
Stotz, D. F., J. W. Fitzpatrick, T. A. Parker III, and D. K. Moskovits, editors.
Marini & Garcia
1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago.
Stouffer, P. C., and S. H. Borges. 2001. Conservation recommendations
for understory birds in Amazonian forest fragments and second
growth areas. Pages 248–261 in R. O. Bierregaard, Jr., C. Gascon, T.
E. Lovejoy, and R. C. G. Mesquita, editors. Lessons from Amazonia:
the ecology and conservation of a fragmented forest. Yale University
Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
Teixeira, D. L. M. 1986. The avifauna of the northeastern Brazilian Atlantic Forest: a case of mass extinction? Ibis 128:167–168.
Tubelis, D. P., and W. M. Tomas. 2003. Bird species of the Pantanal
wetland, Brazil. Ararajuba 11:5–37.
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Conservation International do
Brasil, Fundação Biodiversitas, EMBRAPA/Semi-Árido, Fundação de
Apoio ao Desenvolvimento da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco.
2002. Avaliação e ações prioritárias para a conservação da biodiversidade da Caatinga. Secretaria de Biodiversidade e Floresta, Ministerio
do Meio Ambiente, Brası́lia (in Portuguese).
Vielliard, J. 1990. Uma nova espécie de Asthenes da Serra do Cipó, Minas
Gerais, Brasil. Ararajuba 1:121–122 (in Portuguese).
Vooren, C. M., and L. F. Brusque. 1999. Avaliação e ações prioritárias
para a conservação da biodiversidade da Zona Costeira e Marinha: Diagnóstico sobre Aves do ambiente costeiro do Brasil (in Portuguese).
Bird Conservation in Brazil
671
Available from http://www.bdt.fat.org.br/workshop/costa/aves (accessed December 2004).
Whitney, B. M., D. C. Oren, and R. T. Brumfield. 2004. A new species
of Thamnophilus antshrike (Aves: Thamnophilidae) from the Serra
do Divisor, Acre, Brazil. Auk 121:1031–1039.
Whitney, B. M., J. F. Pacheco, D. R. C. Buzzetti, and R. Parrini. 2000.
Systematic revision and biogeography of the Herpsilochmus pileatus complex, with description of a new species from northeastern
Brazil. Auk 117:869–891.
Whittaker, A. 2002. A new species of Forest-Falcon (Falconidae: Micrastur) from southeastern Amazonia and the Atlantic rainforests of
Brazil. Wilson Bulletin 114:421–445.
Willis, E. O. 1979. The composition of avian communities in remanescent woodlots in southern Brazil. Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia, São
Paulo 33:1–25.
Willis, E. O., and Y. Oniki. 1992. A new Phylloscartes (Tyrannidae)
from southeastern Brazil. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club
112:158–165.
Wright, T. F., et al. 2001. Nest poaching in Neotropical parrots. Conservation Biology 15:710–720.
Zimmer, K. J., A. Whittaker, and D. C. Oren. 2001. A cryptic new species
of flycatcher (Tyrannidae: Suiriri) from the Cerrado region of central
South America. Auk 118:56–78.
Conservation Biology
Volume 19, No. 3, June 2005