2014 International Association for the Philosophy of Sport
Natal Brazil
ABSTRACTS
(This is a tentative list of accepted abstracts; final abstract list will include those in attendance
only)
1
Kenneth Aggerholm & Eigil Jespersen
Title: Practising makes perfect
Keywords: Askesis, testing, development, performance
Abstract:
This paper will explore a movement phenomenon that appears as a most obvious and basic
part of participating in sport: practising. This phenomenon has, however, hardly received any
attention in the philosophy of sport and accounts of human activity in general. There can be many
reasons for this. One could be that the precise nouns and verbs that describe this phenomenon in
German (Übung/üben) and Scandinavian languages (øvelse/øve, øving/øve and övning/öva) easily loose
their meaning when translated into the British English noun practice or verb practise, the latter of
which is practice in American English. This easily confuses the active human activity of ‘being
practising’ with merely taking part in social practices. This paper will argue that it is the former that
makes perfect, not the latter.
Another reason for the apparent lack of interest in this phenomenon can be related to the
understanding of vita activa in modern western philosophy. Arendt (1958) distinguished between
three forms of activity fundamental for the human condition: labor, work and action. These can be
useful to describe how activity can contribute to nurturing biological and physical fitness of the body,
producing and acquiring new useful skills and crafts, and as a contrast to these, be the source of
diversity, spontaneity and playfulness. But at the same time they are incapable of grasping essential
aspects of human activity in what Sloterdijk calls vita performativa where we can find the practising
mode of life. This points to a kind of sporting activity, where pursuing perfection need not rest on
necessity (labor), involve instrumental activity (work) or merely be a disclosure of human plurality
(action).
To clarify the phenomenon of practising this paper will draw on Sloterdijk’s anthropology of
practising, Foucault’s philosophical clarification of
, and Kretchmar’s philosophical reflections
on ‘testing’ in sport. From this we will highlight the most essential aspects of practising, in particular
agency, effort, repetition, verticality, apprenticeship, uncertainty and self-perfection.
We will present this understanding of practising as a constructive account of human activity in sport
that carry both a descriptive and normative value. It can help reveal and describe a layer of meaning
that can make it possible to understand the passionate engagement of athletes, distinct from
instrumental qualities of performance and external motivations. This can inform a development
perspective that can take sporting activity and talent development in direction of more meaningful and
sustainable approaches.
References
Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press
Foucault, Michel. 2005. The Hermeneutics of the Subject. Lectures at the Collège de France 1981-1982. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Kretchmar, R. Scott. 1975. “From test to contest: An analysis of two kinds of counterpoints in sport.” Journal of
the Philosophy of Sport 2(1): 23–30.
Sloterdijk, Peter. 2009. Du mußt dein Leben ändern. Berlin: Suhrkamp
Professional and Contact Information
Kenneth Aggerholm- Postdoc
Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics
University of Southern Denmark
Eijil Jespersen - Associate Professor
Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics
University of Southern Denmark
2
[email protected]
[email protected]
3
Wivi Anderson and Sigmund Loland
Title: Sport and the Obligation of Solidarity
Abstract:
Modern sport is often linked to humanistic ideals. This is perhaps most clearly expressed in the
official ideology of the Olympic Games, Olympism. In §4 of The Fundamental Principles of the IOC it is
stated that the practice of sport is a human right and that sport practiced in the spirit of Olympism
implies a spirit of mutual understanding, fair play and solidarity. Analyzing the case of Michelle
Dumaresq, a female, transgendered downhill mountain biker whose inclusion in the female category
was challenged by her competitors, we seek to examine on what conditions and in what way sport can
be a sphere for solidarity.
Axel Honneth’s theory of recognition (1995) provides an analytic framework. For Honneth,
recognition is a fundamental need and a condition for freedom, self-realization and for establishing
and maintaining a just society. According to Honneth, a democratic and just society offers recognition
on three different levels to its members; love in our close relationships, rights as equal members of
society, and solidarity in the civil society. The three forms of recognition constitute a reciprocal
relationship to other persons or to a community, and they are also conditions for developing a sound
relationship to self. Cases of disrespect, violation or marginalization that instigate moral discussion in
society can be viewed a ‘struggle for recognition’ (Honneth 1995), and these moral struggles are
necessary to identify unrealized moral potential.
In the case of Dumaresq, her right to practice sport was protected by Canadian law and by the
rules of Canadian sport. These laws and rules also secured her inclusion in downhill mountain biking
as a woman. In other words, the issue at stake is not one of formal rights but one of accept and
inclusion among peers; one of solidarity. With the case of Dumaresq as a background we will examine
more closely sex classification in sport and how classification systems seem to be preconditions for
solidarity (or the lack of it). We will argue that sport has a significant potential for solidarity, and
demonstrate how Honneth’s concept of solidarity fits in with notions of fair play and fair classification.
Key word: Solidarity, Honneth, transgender, classification in sport
References:
Teetzel, Sarah (2013) The Onus of Inclusivity: Sports Policies and the Enforcement of the Women’s
Category in Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sports, 41, 113-127
Sailor, Pam (2013) Mixed Competition and Mixed Messages. Journal of the Philosophy of Sports, 41, 6577
Hämäläinen, Mika (2013) Sport with Untapped Potential to Empower Women. Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport, 41, 53-63.
Professional and Contact Information
Wivi Andersen
Phd-student
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
[email protected]
Sigmund Loland
Professor/rector
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
[email protected]
4
Marco Antonio Azevedo
Title: Doping, sports and the preservation of the integrity of the game
Key Words: Doping, enhancements, Bernard Suits, concept of game, integrity of games.
Abstract:
It is well known that athletes sometimes use performance-enhancing drugs. When they are caught, such
practices are severely punished by international committees. But if doping is so endemic, why not regulate rather
than ban it? After all, some forms of doping are not more harmful to athletes than the practice of their sports. So,
assuming that safe enhancements are possible, would still there be good arguments against its use in sports? One
general complaint is that its use would compromise the athletic ideal of olympism. Olympism seems to be a set of
requirements that presupposes other moral ideas, like friendship, solidarity and fair play (Parry 2006). But why
the use of performance drugs would compromise olympism? After all, in using them athletes strive to be better;
it is not clear why this would compromise the olympic spirit. A more specific complaint against the use of
performance drugs in sports is the argument from cheating. The standard version claims that competition is only
ethical if it is fair; so the rules must treat all competitors equally, and they must be luminous. Nevertheless, if
fairness and luminosity were the only basic general rules against doping, then Savulescu, Foddy & Clayton
(2004) are right. Drugs are against the rules; but we stipulate the rules of sport. If we made drugs legal and freely
available, there would be no cheating. And if it is the welfare of the athlete that is our primary concern, drugs that
do not expose athletes to excessive risks should be allowed. Vorstenbosch claims that doping harms the
reasonable reciprocal expectations raised by athletes and institutional authorities (Vorstenbosch 2010). But this
does not imply any categorical rule against doping. A better objection against Savulescu, Foddy & Clayton's
argument is that restriction on bodily abilities is part of the rules that constitute the game. Games are played with
equal artificial restrictions to all competitors, and some restrictions are constitutive parts of the game applied to
all competitors equally just because they constitute the game they are all playing. Games have designed artificial
obstacles whose purpose is just to create the possibility of some particular game (Suits 1978). To play a game is
“to attempt to achieve a specific state of affairs, using only means permitted by rules, where the rules prohibit
use of more efficient in favor of less efficient means [those are the constitutive rules of the game], and where the
rules are accepted just because they make possible such activity" (Suits 1978, 41). Enhancements, hence, can be
forbidden if they go against the constitutive rules of the game. If some participant has some significant inherent
advantage over all the other competitors in surpassing the constitutive obstacles of a game, this form of
participation disarranges the constitutive arrangement that makes a game the same for all players. By the same
token, athletes with significantly different inherent advantages cannot compete in the same category. Hence, the
ban of doping is related to the categorical requirement of preserving the integrity of the game. Nevertheless, to
say that this requirement is categorical is not to say that it is absolute, neither moralist. It depends on the
characteristics of the game, on its constitutive rules, on the kind of advantage in question, and on the required
standards that make the game possible as one specific game. So, safe enhancements can be eventually permitted,
provided they are open to all and do not open the case for the disfiguration of the integrity of the game.
Referenecs:
Savulescu, J., B. Foddy, & B. Clayton. 2004. Why we should allow performance enhancing drugs in sport. British
Journal of Sports Medicine 38: 666–670.
Vorstenbosch, Jan. 2010. Doping and Cheating. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 37 (2): 166-182.
Murray, T.H.; Maschke, K.J. & Wasunna, A. 2009. Performance Enhancing Technologies in Sports: Ethical,
Conceptual and Scientific Issues. Johns Hopkins University
Professional and Contact Information
Marco Antonio Azevedo
Associate Professor in Philosophy
Unisinos, University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos (São Leopoldo, Brazil)
[email protected]
5
Claudia Böger
Title: Shared situations and intersubjectivity
Keywords: Intersubjectivity, phenomenal structures, shared situation
Abstract
Movement is not learned when a video is passively observed. We have to bodily execute movement in
order to comprehend the meaning contained in it. A necessary condition that movement contains
meaning is its symbolic (Metheny 1968, Cassirer 1964, Langer 1942/1980) and structural grounding.
Meaning is further available as an unconscious action-guiding structure (Böger 2006). Symbolic
structures are activated only via real-world experience (Danzig/Pecher/Zeelenberg/Barsalou 2007).
That means that the effect of our movement exhibits the source of the meaning (Metheny 1968). Here
is the overlapping with the intersubjective action within the groups of subjects executing sport.
Intersubjectivity is further considered as a complex phenomenon that can be jointly perceived and
understood by several participants. Every possible relation to the self presupposes a correlated world
that is used as mediating part of individual epistemic processes that, in turn, applies for the structures
of role and perspective assignment (Jörissen 2000, 59 in Böger 2006). Intersubjectvity is, thus, also
bound to the embodiment in sport-bodily grounded experiences concerning movement of a single
person or in a group. A related research question will be further explored: to what extent are meanings
(as action-guiding structures) recognizable within groups and to what extend they can be further
differentiated (Barsalou 2003)?
Professional and Contact Information
Claudia Böger
Professor for sport pedagogy
Institute for sport science
Universität Regensburg
[email protected],
6
Alberto Carrio Sampedro
Title: Equality and Personal Matters in Sport Competitions
Keywords: equality, personal matters, fairness, genetics, sports competitions.
Abstract:
Since equality is a basic principle in Sport, the aim of the normative structure of sport
competitions is to avoid any inequality between participants. This explains why the norms of these
competitions discriminate on the basis of gender, age, height, weight and so on. In other words, to
establish different categories in competition is thought to be the best way to ensure equal
opportunities between competitors.
Nevertheless, these categories could become obsolete regarding both, the current level of
knowledge in genetics and its impact on athletic performance and fairness in competition. Cases like
the ones of the Olympic champion Eero Mäntyranta and the world champion Caster Semenya illustrate
perfectly such challenges.
In this paper I will argue that despite the norms of sport competitions are developed in order
to ensure the moral goals of sport, namely fairness, equality and so on –the unity of values which,
according to Loland, encapsulate informal fair play-; these moral goals won’t be fully ensured unless
considering genetics as well as other physical and mental traits hitherto unknown, just like what is
done with the rest of personal matters.
References:
LOLAND, S., Fair Play in Sport. A moral norm System. London, Routledge, 2002.
McNAMEE, M. J. (2006). Transhumanism, medical technology and slippery slopes. Journal of Medical
Ethics, 32(9), 513–518. doi:10.1136/jme.2005.013789.
OSTRANDER, E., HUSON, H., OSTRANDER, G., “Genetics of Athletic Performance”, in Annual review of
genomics and human genetics, 2009 (10), pp. 407-29.
Professional and Contact Information
Alberto Carrio Sampedro
Assistant professor.
Pompeu Fabra University. Barcelona
[email protected]
7
Tiffany Charlotte Boyle and Prof Jo Longhurst
Title: “These Gymnasts Do Not Simply Perform Gymnastics:” Portraying Whiteness in a Case Study of
Contemporary Visual Art with Gymnastic Subject Matter
Keywords: Visual Arts; Whiteness; Artistic Gymnastics
Abstract:
Whiteness permeates Artistic Gymnastics to saturation; not only does it subsist as the status
quo, but its’ privileging is constantly (re)constructed by an endless number of factors, including but
not limited to: the youthful demographic of the sport; the fetishisation of specific physiques, aesthetics
and fashions; the European dance traditions embedded within the ‘Code of Points;’ and the display and
chalking of athletes’ skin. The enduring visual representations of the sport and its popularity were
cemented in the period from 1972-76, the reign of perfection via Olga Korbut and Nadia Comăneci,
which continues to act as a reference point for the sports’ audience, despite the revelations and
accusations made since of the sports darker side during the era. It was at this time that the sports’
image became increasingly complex, intertwined with Cold War politics, adding an aura of coldness,
discipline and yet also fragility, each astute characteristics of whiteness on a individual basis, and
further perpetrating both the actual image of the sport but also its’ imagined qualities. In other words,
the aesthetic of gymnastics as an aesthetic sport, became self-consciously and definitively concrete.
Presently, critics and theorists have identified an ‘athletic turn’ taking place in the visual arts,
but what is specific about this turn with regards to certain artists who have selected gymnastic
subject-matter is the unquestioning nostalgia for the aforementioned time-period in their output. This
paper will introduce the work of artists Cathy Lomax and Lucy McKenzie who have each produced
works within a 10-year period referencing Korbut and Comăneci, and discuss these works in relation
to Other Spaces, the ongoing project of artist Jo Longhurst, which itself appropriates historic images of
Comăneci and Korbut but eschews the nostalgia of other contemporary works. Other Spaces embraces
the ‘whiteness’ of discipline and perfection, posing questions of power, control, gender and agency, but
highlighting the difficulties associated with any form of visual representation. The aesthetic contained
within all these artworks, as visual representations of Artistic Gymnastics as opposed to
representations of the sport’s own aesthetic, are at once similar and at odds with Artistic Gymnastics
itself.
In this dialogue between curator and artist, we will tease apart these overlaps and
discrepancies, and discuss the ongoing (one-way) attraction of the artist towards the gymnast.
References:
Connor, S.; A Philosophy of Sport, Reaktion Books: London, 2011
Gumbrecht, H. A.; In Praise of Athletic Beauty, Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 2006
Longhurst, J.; Other Spaces, Ffotogallery with Mostyn, Cornerhouse, Manchester, 2012
Sontag, S.; Fascinating Fascism in: Under the Sign of Saturn, Picador: London, 2002
Professional and Contact Information
Tiffany Charlotte Boyle, Curator
Department of Art History & Screen Media
Birkbeck, University of London
[email protected]
Prof Jo Longhurst, Artist
Centre for Fine Art Research
Birmingham School of Art,Birmingham City
University
[email protected]
8
Daniel Campos
Title: Sporting Creativity, Enriched Communities, and Integral Personal Education
Key Words: Sport, Creativity, Education
Abstract:
This paper addresses the question: Why should there be philosophical interest in defining, describing, and
understanding sporting creativity? Adopting a Peircean perspective, the paper will emphasize two interrelated
kinds of reasons, namely, the importance of creativity (a) for enriching sporting communities and (b) for
enhancing the integral education of the individual members of those communities.
This paper takes as a starting point a definition of sporting creativity that is based on a
phenomenological account of sporting experience. Taking philosophical cues from the thought of Charles
Sanders Peirce, it posits that creativity in sporting activity is the ability to respond to the physical challenges
encountered in the practice of sport in spontaneous and imaginative ways on the basis of carefully cultivated
physical and mental—or bodyminded—habits. This definition involves several key Peircean notions such as
imagination, spontaneity, habit, and the continuity of body and mind. They will be explained as necessary to
advance the paper’s main objective; namely, to consider some reasons why sporting creativity is of philosophical
interest to sporting communities and, especially, for the integral education of the bodyminded person (section I).
These reasons are recast in terms of possibilities for creative self-realization in sport, highlighting the upshot of
an education for creativity (section II).
The first point about communities is a general feature of Peirce’s systematic thought—creative
individuals can be agents for promoting the growth and enrichment of their communities, e.g. for communities of
scientific inquiry to advance towards the knowledge of truth. In the case of sport, creative individuals and
creative acts—in the sense of creativity as promoting effective problem-solving within the constraints and rules
of the sport—enrich the practice of communities. This point is developed in relation to work by Teresa Lacerda
and Stephen Mumford (2011) and Peter Hopsicker (2010)
Regarding the improvement and development of the individual within the community,
phenomenological attention to the processes and experience of sporting creativity holds the promise of
improving the integral education of the sportsperson. This includes the sporting education of the person, but it
goes beyond it. Fostering creativity in sporting activity may lead, for learners and strivers of all ages and levels,
to the integral education of the bodyminded person. The meaning of “integral education” will be worked out with
reference to work by William Sadler (1977) and Douglas Anderson (2001).
References:
Anderson, Douglas. 2001. “Recovering Humanity: Movement, Sport, and Nature.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 28: 140 –
150.
Hopsicker, Peter. 2011. “In Seach of the ‘Sporting Genius’: Exploring the Benchmarks to Creative Behavior in Sporting
Activity.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 38: 113-127.
Lacerda, Teresa and Mumford, Stephen. 2010. “The Genius in Art and in Sport: A Contribution to the Investigation of
Aesthetics of Sport.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 37: 182-193.
Sadler Jr., William A. 1977. “Alienated Youth and Creative Sports’ Experience.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 4: 83 – 95.
Lacerda, Teresa and Mumford, Stephen. 2010. “The Genius in Art and in Sport: A Contribution to the Investigation of
Aesthetics of Sport.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 37: 182-193.
Sadler Jr., William A. 1977. “Alienated Youth and Creative Sports’ Experience.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 4: 83 – 95.
Professional and Contact Information
Daniel G. Campos
Associate Professor
Department of Philosophy
Brooklyn College — City University of New York
[email protected]
9
Lamartine DaCosta and Paulo Rodrigo DaSilva
Title: Intrinsic Values VS Ideology in Philosophy of Sport–Overview of Insights from U.S. and Brazil
Key Words: Sport, ideology, values, ethics
Abstract:
According to DaCosta (2014) the theme of ideology remains today as a major concern from
social or political philosophy, however it still attracts the interest of a few but relevant thinkers of
sport mainly concentrated in North America. That is the case of John Hoberman, Allen Guttmann and
William J. Morgan who keep their specificity otherwise agreeing with the opposing views of sport: one
is looking in ideology-bound directions, the other into the constructive social values as opposed to
dominant ideology. Point-specific, Hoberman had met this Janus-like approach in his early writings
from the 1970s, suggesting that sport was “innocuous” facing the appropriation of sport by ideologybased interests. Later he joined Guttmann and Morgan in the support of the thesis of sport as a means
of values-led emancipation and freedom, an insight still prevalent today.
Generally speaking, since the 1960s some European and Latin American thinkers influenced by
Marxism framed sport as a means of social dominance neglecting its attribute of self-realization. In
Brazil, for instance, Marxist interpretation of sport became a mainstream thought among social
researchers, leaving behind the intrinsic values of sport. Eventually this characteristic feature is
identified nowadays as argued by Oliveira (2013) who followed the construction of knowledge in sport
and Physical Education by national surveys in this particular country beginning in 1971.
Thus far, this contribution aims to review the fact-findings promoted by Oliveira (2013)
focusing on the presupposed Brazil-based negligence with the notion of values-driven sport. Briefly,
this overview suggests that the concentration on the version of dominance is mostly an ethical claim
not an explicit rejection of sport in its competitive dimension. Ipso facto the today’s distinction
between U.S. and Brazil in terms of insights about the Janus-like understanding of sport is a matter of
choice not a contradiction.
This conclusion is compatible with the results of an empirical research conducted by Loland
and Ommundsen (1996) in Norway when it was investigated the perception of the general population
towards children’s sport’s values and ideology. For those philosophers of sport the latter apparent
ambivalence meant a simple distinction between sport’s intrinsic values and the beliefs about sport
competition cultivated by the wider society.
References:
DaCosta, L.P. (2014) Sport and Ideology. In Torres, C. (Ed) The Bloomsbury Companion to the
Philosophy of Sport. London: Bloomsbury, pp. 2012 – 227.
Santana, A.F.S. (2013) Diagnosis of Sport in Brazil. Doctoral Thesis – Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Salvador.
Loland, S. and Ommundsen, Y. (1996) Values and Ideologies of Norwegian Children’s Sport as
Perceived by the General Population. European Physical Education Review 2 (1996), 133–42.
Professional and Contact Information
Lamartine DaCosta
Professor
State University of Rio de Janeiro
[email protected]
Paulo Rodrigo Pedroso DaSilva
PhD student,
State University of Rio de Janeiro
[email protected],
10
Yuval Eylon and Amir Horowitz
Title: Who deserves to win in football?
Key words: desert; winning; justice; luck; sporting values.
Abstract:
The concept of desert plays an important role in moral philosophy, in political philosophy, and
in other axiological enquiries. Our purpose in this talk is to explore the application of this concept to
the domain of sport, and specifically to that of football (soccer). The question as far as this domain is
concerned is who deserves to win a particular game, to win a championship or a tournament, etc.
There are several dimensions to this question. First, the question can be reduced to, or understood in
terms of, the question of "general" moral desert, or, in other words, that of "cosmic justice". Who, in the
final analysis, taken all morally relevant facts into consideration, deserves to win? Or, What score (if
any) would make the world morally better? Considerations that are relevant to the question thus
understood include the well-being of the relevant individuals (or teams, or nations and the like), their
moral merits (based on the way they conducted their life), and so forth. These considerations have
little to do with sport and sporting values, though arguably they might be weighed against such values.
Let's refer to such considerations as "external".
Now let's move to "internal" considerations. There is a sense in which the one who deserves to
win is simply the one who plays better – the athlete or team that better exercises the abilities relevant
to the game. It is possible to think that (assuming no erroneous decisions on the part of the referee are
involved) this is simply the one who does win, but as we have shown in a previous work, this isn't
necessarily so, especially with respect to football. You can demonstrate the relevant abilities better
than your opponent yet lose the game. It is due to luck that abilities and success in football can come
apart. Who deserves to win when winning and playing better do come apart? And does the team that
plays better (and even wins) always deserve to win? Finally, how are all these notions of desert related
to the concept of desert having to do with cosmic justice? We will explore this conceptual space and try
to answer these questions. In so doing, we will also discuss the related issue of the relations between
the concepts of fair behavior in general on the one hand, and the concept of fair play and thick
concepts of sporting values such as those of daring and determination on the other hand.
Referenecs:
Kagan, Shelly. The Geometry of Desert, Oxford University Press, 2012.
Pojman and McLeod, eds., What Do We Deserve? Oxford University Press, 1998.
Simmons, Robert, "Deserving to Be Lucky: Reflections on the Role of Luck and Desert in Sport", Journal
of the Philosophy of Sport, 34 (2007, 13-25.
Professional and Contact Information
Yuval Eylon
Senior Lecturer in Philosophy
The Open University of Israel
[email protected]
Amir Horowitz
Associate Professor of Philosophy
The Open University of Israel
[email protected]
11
Jeffrey Fry
Title: “What was it Like to be Like Mike? Or, My Absent Qualia?
Key Words: qualia, consciousness, what’s it like?
Abstract:
In his widely-cited piece entitled “What is it Like to be a Bat?,” the philosopher Thomas Nagel
states the following: “But fundamentally an organism has conscious mental states if and only if there is
something that it is like to be that organism—something it is like for the organism.” He adds: “We may
call this the subjective character of experience.” 1
In this paper I contemplate what it might have been like to be an elite athlete like Michael
Jordan at the height of his athletic prowess. On the one hand, according to Nagel, we cannot know
what it is like to be a bat. Its form of existence is alien to us. On the other hand, Nagel thinks that we
can, based on our own experiences, approximate an understanding of what it is like to be another
person. But what about knowing what it was like to be an elite athlete such as Michael Jordan? The
television commercials encouraged us to “Be Like Mike,” and in Walter Mitty-like excursions through
imaginative space, I can picture myself soaring from the free throw line to slam home a dunk shot. But
can I really ever know what it was like to be like Michael Jordan?
In part this is the question of qualia. Do they exist, and if so, what is their nature? According to
some familiar arguments, no amount of pouring over Jordan’s statistics will tell me what it was like to
be like Mike, in the sense of what his qualia were like. No account of the physical facts pertaining to his
anatomy or physiology will do the job. Can anyone tell me? Perhaps LeBron James? Can I know it by
introspection? Can even Michael Jordan at this point know what it was like to be Michael Jordan? Are
his memories faithful memories? Perhaps what it was like to be like Mike has been lost in the mist of
time.
This line of questioning presupposes that there was something that it was like to be like Mike?
But is that true? Do my experiences lack qualia that Michael Jordan experienced? What about the
possibility of zombie-Michael Jordan? I argue that these issues point to the bigger issue of what it
means to be a human being, and that significant ethical implications follow from the responses to these
issues about the nature of consciousness.
References:
(1) David J. Chalmers. “Facing up to the Problem of Consciousness,” in Philosophy of Mind: A Guide and
Anthology, edited by John Heil, 617-640. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
(2) Thomas Nagel. “What is it Like to be a Bat?”, in Philosophy of Mind: A Guide and Anthology, edited by
John Heil, 528-538. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
(3) Edmond Wright, editor. The Case for Qualia. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008.
Professional and Contact Information
Associate Professor
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
Ball State University
[email protected]
1
Thomas Nagel, “What is it Like to be a Bat?”, in Philosophy of Mind: A Guide and Anthology, edited by John Heil,
528-538. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. The quotation is found on p. 529.
12
Koyo Fukasawa and Ai Aramaki
Title: Beyond the border and changing public attitudes: Olympic education as intangible legacy
Key Words: Cosmopolitanism, educational aim, moral value, publics
Abstract:
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) added the term ‘Legacy’ to the Olympic Charter in 2003.
Legacy is the notion of focusing on sustainable urban development seen over the long term rather than shortterm economic benefits. The IOC is attempting to create a system to make the relationship between sports and
society a reality through the Olympic Games by increasing the awareness toward environmental issues for future
generations. There are two types of Olympic Legacy, tangible and intangible. The intangible legacy is, especially,
difficult to be recognized and measured, however it is more important. It may have a direct or an indirect impact
on society. We should approach this intangible legacy, which is understood as a temporal event, with future
generation in mind. Olympic education is one of the key approaches to make clear this intangible legacy, since it
is focused on future generations. Therefore, this essay aims at considering what educational goals should be
pursued in Olympic education. According to Naul (2008), Olympic education has focused on a set of social virtues
and moral values applied within sport activities and in the setting of children and young people since the 2000s.
How should we recognize such virtues and ethical values? Coubertin, who already had a basic philosophy of
cosmopolitanism, suggested that we should aim to introduce a temporary truce into differences. Accordingly, we
should iron out cultural distinctions, values, and systems so as to transcend the framework of nationality. His
ideal, however, has not been fully realized yet.(Morgan, 1995) Because sports and games include confrontational
element and events, we need to discuss how solidarity can be introduced through competitive scenarios and into
people who have different cultural values. The idea of cosmopolitanism by Kant(1785) is more realistic and
convincing in regard to this point. Public attitude is important for cosmopolitanism: it is an attitude that should
be encouraged; it is an attitude that aims at making use of one’s reason publicly. According to Kant(1784), this
means not thinking about how to benefit one’s own country or local government (since this entails the private
use of reason). Rather, this means using reason as a scholar with the public’s common good in mind. One must be
free for that. Accordingly, to adopt this attitude, it is necessary to bracket one’s own benefit. Regarding solidarity,
we should explore both possibilities, that of going beyond national borders, and that of overcoming generational
barriers. Concerning the former, the spirit of fairness and rule following should be valued. As far as the latter, it
will require to see future generations as ‘the other’ which involves considering the self as the other at the same
time. Because this ensures freedoms for people and contributes to development of the Olympic movement
without being affected by nation-states. In this way, to learn to bracket the differences from others should be set
as a goal of Olympic education rather than ironing out differences.
References
Kant, I. [trans. Daniel Fidel Ferrer] (1784 [2013]) Answer the question: What is enlightenment?
(https://archive.org/stream/AnswerTheQuestionWhatIsEnlightenment/KantEnlightmentDanielFidelFerrer20
13#page/n0/mode/2up)
Kant, I. [trans. Campbell Smith] (1785 [1903]) Perpetual Peace.
(https://archive.org/stream/perpetualpeacea00kantgoog#page/n124/mode/2up)
William J. Morgan (1995) Cosmopolitanism, Olympism, and Nationalism. Olympika, 4, pp. 79-92
Roland Naul (2008) Olympic Education, Oxford: Meyer and Meyer：UK, p.13.
Professional and Contact Information
Koyo Fukasawa
Ai Aramaki
Associate Professor
Ph.D candidate
University of Tsukuba
University of Tsukuba
[email protected]
[email protected]
13
Paul Gaffney
Title: Moral Victories
Key Words: competition, psychology, development
Abstract:
A “moral victory” seems to be something of a paradox. It suggests that something positive has
occurred or has been achieved although the result was—as a matter of fact—a defeat. The qualifier
‘moral’ thus serves to qualify or even override the factual outcome. And yet the fact remains.
Competitive sport is not entirely a matter of moral evaluation or else there would be no paradox or
qualification involved in the term: we would simply say that the player or the team played well,
courageously, nobly, etc., and leave it at that. But we do not because, however important those
qualities are, in the context of competitive sport they find their intelligibility in the factual outcomes of
the event. Moral victories thus stand as a rebuke to strict zero-sum logic, and yet presuppose it on
some level.
It is possible to play well and lose, just as it is possible to play poorly and win. Although the
latter can shake a player’s confidence or rhythm, we do not typically speak of “moral defeats,” possibly
because the successful outcome somehow mitigates the poor showing. In other words, there seems not
to be a perfect symmetry here, which complicates our understanding of the relationship between
winning and losing and how one wins or loses.
The invocation of a moral victory seems to presume a long-term as opposed to a short-term or
an “event” vantage point. That is, we understand that this particular competitive event might go down
in the loss column, but that is not the only way to consider the efforts and the achievements of the
competitors. Very often moral victories are part of a player’s (or a team’s) natural development, which
comes with the implicit suggestion that this performance is one to build on for the future. But the
developmental understanding is not the only species of moral victory: a veteran player or team at the
end of a career can achieve a moral victory in contest with a stronger opponent. Generally speaking,
anytime an overmatched opponent performs honorably and courageously and—it must ultimately
come down to this—competitively, there is an occasion for a moral victory.
The developmental understanding is of particular interest because it comes with an implicit
promise that one day this moral victory will turn into a real victory. In other words, it would seem that
a moral victory can only provide limited solace and encouragement, which is why we sometimes hear
coaches or players say things like, “We are past the point of moral victories.” A competitor who only
had moral victories to show for his or her career might possibly—and perhaps unfairly—develop a
reputation for not being able to win the big one.
The psychology of moral victories is also an interesting investigation because it would seem
that whatever satisfaction a moral victory provides, it can be neither directly pursued nor fully
enjoyed.
References:
Carr, D. (1999). Where’s the merit if the best man wins? Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 26: 1-9.
Dixon, N. (1999). On winning and athletic superiority. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 26: 10-26
Kretchmar, R.S. (2013). Competition, redemption, and hope. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 39: 101-116
Professional and Contact Information
Paul Gaffney
Chair and Associate Professor of Philosophy
St. John’s University, NY
[email protected]
14
John Gleaves and Tim Lehrbach
Title: Beyond Fairness: Rethinking Gender’s Role in Sport in Light of Trans* and Intersex Athletes and
Mixed-Gender Competitions
Keywords: Gender, Transgender, Intersex, Fairness
Abstract:
Scholars have long recognized sport as a vehicle for establishing and expressing visions of
masculinity and femininity. This includes transgender or transsexual (trans*) and intersex athletes.
Because such individuals have a moral entitlement to sport, fears about exclusion, perceptions of
hostility towards gender non-conforming athletes, or actual rules that bar participants from competing
have garnered attention among scholars. Many scholars have attacked any exclusion of athletes on the
grounds that they do not upset the equality of conditions among the athletes. This focus on “equality
amongst competitors” has provided some leverage against efforts to exclude such athletes from sport.
However, while we agree with sentiments towards inclusivity, the arguments that hinge on equality
among competitors are philosophically unsatisfying. We will argue that fairness is not the issue that
should determine inclusion; rather, the issue is ensuring that the value assigned to gendered meaning
in sporting contests does not outweigh other significant values associated with sport. In this paper, we
will first historicize notions of equality in sport and show that rather than being the “gold standard” of
idealized sport, they are a modern invention that can enhance certain aspects of sport, such as
comparative outcomes and competitive enjoyment. We will then argue that such aspects are only part
of the value of sport and must be considered balanced with other aspects of sport, such as lusory
enjoyment or personal narrative. With this holistic notion of sport’s values, we argue that gendered
narratives must also be considered as a component of good sport but that their role may be overvalued
and ought to be reduced so that they balance with other desired aspects of sport. We will assert that at
youth levels, such gendered narratives make little sense while at gradually higher levels of elite sport
the desire for equal conditions or gendered narratives is less important than inclusions and
participation. Last, we will argue that even at the highest levels of sport, the plurality of gender
expression can fit with athletes self-selecting their participation gender when a sport requires
gendered competition and competing in mixed gender competitions when such requirements are
unnecessary. We conclude that sport should greatly reduce its desire to enforce cisgenderded binary
sport and work to create sporting climates that show equal concern for sport’s valued qualities. This
would involve increased gender neutral competitions, cessation of sex testing, and permission for
athletes to self-select their gender category.
References:
Schultz, J. (2011). Caster Semenya and the "Question of Too": Sex Testing in Elite Women's Sport and
the Issue of Advantage. Quest, 63(2), 228-243.
Sykes, H. (2006). Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport. Women in Sports and Physical Acitivity
Journal, 15(1), 3-13.
Teetzel, S. (2006). On Transgendered Athletes, Fairness and Doping: An International Challenge. Sport
in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 9(2), 227-251.
Professional and Contact Information
John Gleaves
California State University, Fullerton
[email protected]
Tim Lehrbach
Independent Scholar
[email protected]
15
Mika Hämäläinen
Title: Hitler, Jesse Owens and a Finnish Sprinter
Keywords: athletic superiority, anti-Semitism, sport
Abstract:
Imagine that Hitler would have had the power to control the official results of the 1936 Berlin
Olympics. Next, imagine that he would have nullified the results of Jesse Owens, an African American
athlete, who achieved four gold medals in the Games. The idea is repelling. We may, however, face a
similar situation even without using our imagination.
In 1938, Jewish Abraham Tokazier participated in a 100-metre race at Helsinki Olympic
Stadium in Finland. He crossed the finish line first according to a photograph taken by a spectator.
Nevertheless, Tokazier was officially declared as being fourth. Helsingin Sanomat, a Finnish
newspaper, wrote on the next day that goal judges had made a coarse error. The newspaper contended
that Tokazier had won and portrayed the picture in which Tokazier crosses the finish line first.
However, there is an additional explanation for the unexpected official results. They may have been an
anti-Semitic action that was intended to please National Socialistic German spectators.
In 2013, the Finnish Amateur Athletic Association overturned the original results and declared
Tokazier as a winner. This happened 75 years after the competition and 37 years after Tokazier’s
death.
Tokazier’s case poses two intriguing philosophical issues. The first issue concerns the
alteration of official results: Should the official results be changed in some cases afterwards, and if they
should, what principle should guide the alteration? These questions are also relevant for doping issues.
Second, we can ask whether Tokazier was the best athlete of the 1938 contest not until the official
results were altered or was he best independently of the official results.
I will focus on the latter issue by analysing the case through three different standards of
athletic superiority. However, the focus of my paper does not amount to ignoring the first issue, since
the two issues are interconnected. In other words, by addressing the latter issue we can achieve better
insight into the former.
References:
Dixon, Nicholas 1999. On Winning and Athletic Superiority. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 26, 10–
26.
Loland, Sigmund 2002. Fair Play in Sport. A moral norm system. London and New York: Routledge.
Suits, Bernard 2010. Construction of a Definition. In The Ethics of Sports. A Reader, edited by Mike
McNamee 17–28. London and New York: Routledge.
Professional and Contact Information
Mika Hämäläinen
Doctoral candidate
University of Turku
[email protected],
16
Peter Hopsicker
Title: The Value of Perfection: A Critical Examination of the Asymptotic in Sporting Behavior
Key Words: Perfection, Polanyi, Asymptote
Abstract:
Plato once wrote, “In order for man to succeed in life, God provided him with two means, education and
physical activity. Not separately, one for the soul and the other for the body, but for the two together. With these
two means, man can attain perfection.”In modern times, we continue to seek human “perfection,” to seek the
limits of our physical and intellectual abilities. Recent books by Gladwell (Outliers, 2008; David and Goliath,
2013), Colvin (Talent is Overrated, 2008), Coyle (The Talent Code, 2009), Syed (Bounce, 2010), Epstein (The
Sports Gene, 2013), and Kotler (The Rise of Superman, 2014) attempt to unlock the secrets of talent development
in multiple practices, including sport, to elite and world-class levels. Referencing scientific data and case studies,
these works search for the formula, which includes components originating from both nature and nurture that
could suggest pathways leading to extraordinary human performance.
At the same time, Sandel (The Case Against Perfection, 2007) and Brown (“The Case for Perfection,” JPS,
2009) debate the propriety of circumventing the “genetic lottery” through the means of biotechnology and other
performance enhancements. At least one of the ends projected in these works is superior human performance.
Additionally, books by Brenkus (The Perfection Point, 2010) and Borrow (Mathletics, 2012) specifically look into
the biomechanical science behind the limitations of human movement and even go so far as to predict the
absolute limits of human performance—the asymptote where, largely due to the physiological limitations of the
flesh, humans can approach but never exceed in terms of speeds, heights, distances and times. The “perfection
point,” as Brenkus calls it, refers to “points we can edge closer to yet never surpass.”
This recent surge of interest in “perfection” highlights humankind’s continuing fascination with
developing pathways to the “perfect” human and, furthermore, the concurrent discussion of “nature’s” and/or
“nurture’s” contribution to such ends. However, this body of literature does not come to a consensus on what
should be considered “perfect” in the context of motor performance in sport. Is it a function of limitations in the
physical matter of the human body, such as the 8.99 seconds in the 100-meter sprint suggested by Brenkus? Is it
the point of “ultimate human performance,” as Kotler describes it, where any mistake in performance can result
in major injury or even death? Or is it an abstract concept of the mind, such as the sprinter’s mentality that, with
enough dedication, practice, and effort, he/she will someday achieve a time of 0:00:00? Perhaps more
importantly, these works only thinly address the value of striving or even reaching such points to sport and
motor performance practices.
In this paper, I will use the ideas of Michael Polanyi to reframe this discussion. First, I will briefly
introduce Polanyi’s conception of evolution as “a human feat of emergence.” I will then delineate his conception
of “perfection” as an “imaginative projection.” Finally, I will use his conception of “moral inversion” to provide
direction for future research on human potential. Conclusions will suggest the value of striving and achieving
“perfection” in sport and physical activity practices.
References:
Brenkus, J. 2010. The perfection point. New York: Harper-Collins Publishers.
Epstein, D. 2013. The sports gene. New York: Current.
Polanyi, M. and Prosch, H. 1975. Meaning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Professional and Contact Information
Peter Hopsicker
Associate Professor of Kinesiology
Penn State Altoona
[email protected]
17
Daniel Hutto
Conference Keynote Address
Title: Which Embodied Cognition Should Inform Sports Science? A Philosophical Decider
Abstract:
The sciences of mind have taken a decisively embodied turn. The fact that the mind is embodied in
important and surprising ways is now beyond serious dispute. Scientists (e.g. Beilock 2008) are calling
for sports science to be informed by the embodied cognition framework. Yet different frameworks for
understanding embodied cognition have emerged, which can be classified in terms of the degree to
which they retain the notion of mental representations in their accounts. At one end of the spectrum
are ultra-conservative accounts (see, e.g., Goldman 2012). At the other end are radical replacement
accounts that see no role for mental representations in our best theories of mind (Hutto and Myin
2013). This paper provides (1) philosophical reasons for preferring radical embodied theories over
the conservative sort, and (2) explicates how a radical take on embodied and enactive cognitive
science might inform sports science.
Biosketch
Daniel D. Hutto is Professor of Philosophical Psychology at the University of Wollongong (Australia)
and the University of Hertfordshire(UK). His most recent books include: Wittgenstein and the End of
Philosophy (Palgrave, 2006), Folk\ Psychological Narratives (MIT, 2008) and is co‐author of
Radicalizing Enactivism (MIT, 2013). He was a chief co-investigator for the Australian Research
Council ‘Embodied Virtues and Expertise’ project (2010-2013). He is a node leader in the Marie Curie
Action 'Towards an Embodied Science of Intersubjectivity’ Initial training network (2011-2015) and a
collaborator of the 'Agency, Normativity and Identity' project (2012-2015) funded by the Spanish
Ministry of Innovation and Research.
18
Jung Hyun Hwang
Title: Justice in Distributions by Desert in Sport: Aristotelian Practical Perspectives
Key words: distribution, justice, Aristotle, desert, sport
Abstract:
In this paper I will analyze what “distributive justice” means in sport. It refers to the reward
accompanying the result of a game which are factors of strong motivation. They are the pleasure of
gain and deriving excellent performance. All who gets awards for meritorious deeds in sporting
competitions with physical or mental exertion, even moral accountability have no doubts about
differential treatment between competitors. The extra amount of sweat that winners exert doesn’t
amount to discrimination between winners and losers. It raises important questions about the warrant
for identifying justice of distribution. Please think about, why winners get more profit than other
players? I will use the analyses of distributive justice in sport by Aristotle to examine it. I will argue,
therefore, that Aristotle emphasized the principle of distribution from human agency. It is excellence
from Nichomachean Ethics and Politics.
The excellence, namely arête, is related to desert. We may have regarded winners as superior
players to any other players. Even though they get more rewards such as fame, popularity, honor, even
prize money because their desert as winners has been more respected. Aristotle (NE, 1131a25-28)
argues that the principle of assignment by desert that is justice in distributions must be based on
desert of some sort. However, I will focus on the connection of excellence and desert to explain justice
in distribution by referring to Aristotle’s theory, “flute analogy” in Politics (1282b14-1283a3). As
Aristotle says that the superior performer in playing the flute has the grounds for possessing flute. Yet
if this is true, the main reason to receive the flute is because of the greater good ability to play the flute.
The talent or ability to play flute contributes in distribution. According to Aristotle, it is a fair
distribution based on excellence.
We have found that athlete’s excellence has connection with desert. The champion or gold
medal laureate can get more prize money, fame, honor and etc. We have understood that winners have
precisely better skills than others so that there is no reason that they should receive more merit. It is
the justice way of distribution in Aristotle’s theory. Here, we need to focus on excellence which is a
virtue of human agency. But, it requires two conditions, appropriateness and dessert. For example, a
marathoner and sprinter need different types of excellence to do a good performance. Suppose, a
marathoner has physical size, conditioned muscle mass like sprinter, the marathoner may find it
difficult to do an excellent performance. In this case, the physical conditions for marathoner and its
desert are not suited for excellence.
I expect that this research reframes what justice is. By dividing reward in sport is desert. This
analysis requires three steps. Firstly, we concentrate on Aristotle’s theory of distributive justice
through his works, Nichomachean Ethics and Politics. Secondly, we focus on practical distribution in
reality in sport. Lastly, we can understand the player’s excellence and justice in a different distribution.
Professional and Contact Information
Jung Hyun Hwang
Assistant Professor
Wonkwang University, Korea
[email protected]
19
Jesus Illundain and Kevin Krein
Title: Sport’s Flow and Martial Art’s Mushin: A Dynamic, Historical, and Generative Phenomenological
Analysis
Key Words: Mushin, flow, phenomenology, Husserl, Ortega
Abstract:
In “Mushin and Flow: An East-West Comparative Analysis,” its authors conclude, “Even if it
were assumed that the two phenomena begin with the “same” raw sensations, when they are filtered
through Japanese culture, and martial arts conducted under the aegis of a do, the two will differ
phenomenologically” (in Priest and Young 2014). They further claim that while the phenomena are
analogous, given the different cultural context, the two will “in the long run, acquire different
qualitative properties” (ibid). Nonetheless, their account is thin in terms of actual phenomenological
description of said qualities and specification of how culture affects these. This presentation expands
on their promissory and promising comparison.
The project stays close to the facts of sporting and martial experience. Specifically, it adapts
kinesthetic (Sheets-Johnstone 2011) and existential (Breivik 2011) phenomenological analyses of
movement to draw an East-West comparative examination of sports and martial arts that highlights
common and disparate qualitative dynamics. Unprecedentedly, it supplements these with a joint and
contrasted historical (Ortega 1962) and Husserlian generative (Steinbock 1995) phenomenological
examination. This shows the radically constitutive role that history, culture, intersubjectivity,
normativity, geography, weather, and other variables have on the way flow and mushin states are
interpreted and felt. In other words, Orteguian historical reason and Husserlian generation disclose
novel and enriching descriptions and interpretations of the aforementioned dynamics such that these
are tied to their geo-historical development.
Auspiciously, this shows the applicability and vets the validity of the diverse phenomenologies
engaged and, more pertinently for our purposes, affords a richer understanding of sporting flow and
martial mushin.
References:
Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Dangerous Play with the Elements: Towards a phenomenology of Risk Sports. Sports,
Ethics and Philosophy. 5(3), 314-330.
Jackson S. and Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1999. Flow in Sports. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Krein K. and Ilundáin-Agurruza, J. 2014. “An East-West Comparative Analysis of Mushin and Flow.” Philosophy
and the Martial Arts. Priest G. & Young D. (eds.). London: Routledge.
Ortega y Gasset, J. 1962. History as a System and Other Essays Toward a Philosophy of History. New York &
London: W.W. Norton and Co.
Sheets-Johsntone, M. 2011. The Primacy of Movement. 2nd Ed. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Co.
Steinbock, A.J. 1995. Home and Beyond: Generative Phenomenology after Husserl. Evanston, IL: Northwestern
University Press.
Suzuki, D.T. 1993. Zen in Japanese Culture. New York: Princeton University Press.
Takuan Soho. 1987. The Unfettered Mind. Trans. W. S. Wilson, Tokyo. Kodansha International.
Yagyu, Munenori. 2003. The Life Giving Sword. Trans. W.S. Wilson. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Professional and Contact Information
Jesus Illundain
Associate Professor of Philosophy
Linfield College, USA
[email protected]
Kevin Krein
Assoc. Professor of Philosophy
University of Alaska Southeast, Juneau, AK 99801
[email protected]
20
Ivo Jirásek,
Title: Vastness as the specific category of trans-ocean sailing
Key Words: Trans-ocean sailing, spirituality, travelling, vastness, non-religious pilgrimage
Abstract:
Long-distance sailing as a kind of travelling is not ordinary tourism, but rather can be
characterized according to certain specific features of non-religious pilgrimage. Characteristic and
value of sailing experience was studied (Allison at al., 2007), however, the ontological quality (as
vastness) is missing in existing research.
The goal our study is prove the vastness category as a specific ontological and anthropological
characteristic of trans-ocean sailing, in fact on an actual journey from New Zealand to the Falkland
Islands around Cape Horn.
This paper will analyze the diary of a participant on board the Dutch ship Oosterschelde and
use hermeneutic method for deeper understanding of such experience.
Vastness is declared as a specific category of trans-ocean sailing which support also understanding of
such travelling in framework of non-religious pilgrimage.
Some journeys and travelling, like trans-ocean sailing, should be perceived in a framework of nonreligious spirituality among others thanks to vastness category.
Personal and Contact Information
Ivo Jirásek
Professor
Faculty of Physical Culture,
Palacký University Olomouc
Czech Republic
[email protected]
21
Lev Kreft
Title: Antiocularcentrism and Sport Spectacle
Keywords: sport spectacle, antiocularcentrism, new media, everyday life, critique
Abstract:
The starting point of this paper is Martin Jay's extensive study Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision
in Twentieth-Century French Thought (Jay,1993). Suspicion, criticism and attack on watching, seeing, looking and
any other way of enjoyment of vision, is exemplified by French thought, but it is present well beyond French
culture, where it includes, beside Bergson, Bataille, Breton, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Lacan, Althusser, Barthes,
Levinas, Lyotard and Derrida also »Foucault's strictures against the medical gaze and panoptic surveilleance«,
and »Debord's critique of the society of the spectacle« (Jay, 1993, 588). This »profound suspicion of vision and its
hegemonic role in the modern era« (Jay, 1993, 14) occupies a prominent place in most discourses on sport
spectacles, after their core public does not consist any more of those present at the site, but from those who
watch new media images, and are able to do so from any point of the globe and at any time, from innumerable
virtual resources obtainable through more and more numerous means of digital technology products. In fact,
criticism of sport spectatorship has spread so widely that it represents a discipline of its own, where
panopticum's surveillance applies together with general assessment that ours is a society of the spectacle –
which means that sport's massive global public has lost its touch with the real, and succumbed to alienation,
manipulation and ideology. Spectacle, and consequently sport spectacle, together with huge global public created
by such unprecedented accessibility does not cease to attract criticism which states that thanks to the global
system of new media spectacles sport has become what religion used to be: a false transcendence of human
otherwise banal everyday life. In this paper, I will first offer an overview of the critique of spectacle and of the
sport spectacle with a special focus on radical critique of sport by Jean-Marie Brohm (Brohm, 2006). Then, I will
propose another approach to philosophy of the spectacle, starting from Michel de Certeau’s The Practice of
Everyday Life (Certeau, 1988) and from Ágnes Heller’s philosophy of the radical criticism, and of the everyday life
(Heller, 1984). Without ambition to develop a complete representation of their views, I will dwell upon what
they have in common, namely, that even under circumstances of modern anonymous masses and means of
spectacularization, one should never treat people as passive and unconscious object of given circumstances.
General contradiction of all critiques of sport spectacle is that they start from enlightenment’s position of
criticism, but arrive at anti-enlightenment patronizing of sport spectacle’s public. Finally, I will defend sport
spectacle, in spite of its alienating, manipulative and ideological effects attacked by antiocularcentrist critique, as
plebeian entrance into global world and its fascinations, which, after a long period of criticism, needs at least
some philosophical understanding.
References:
Brohm, J.-M. 2006. La Tyrannie sportive - Théor e cr t que d’un op um du people. Paris: Beauchesne.
Certeau, Michel de. 1988. The Practice of Everyday Life (transl. by S. Rendall). Berkeley-Los Angeles-London:
University of California Press.
Heller, Á. 1984. Everyday Life (transl. by G.L. Campbell). London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.
Jay, M. 1993. Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision in Twentieth Century French Thought. Berkeley-Los
Angeles-London: University of California Press.
Professional and Contact Information
Leve Kreft
Prof. of Aesthetics, Faculty of Arts
University of Ljubljana
[email protected]
22
R. Scott Kretchmar
Title: Multiple Game Structures: An Addendum to ‘Game Flaws’
Abstract:
In previous discussions (Kretchmar, 2005), I identified two species of games that manage game
duration in very different ways—those that specify a number of tests that have to be negotiated prior
to completion (event regulated) and those that allot a period of time during which testing can occur
(time regulated). Golf and baseball are examples of the former wherein 18 holes or 27 outs,
respectively, must be negotiated under normal circumstances before the game is over. Basketball and
soccer are examples of the latter method for regulating testing duration. A set amount of time is
permitted (usually divided into halves or other temporal segments) for testing and contesting. The
game is over when time runs out. The upshot of this research was that these two versions of games
carry distinctive assets and liabilities. While I described both structures as functional, I argued that
the event regulated design is normatively superior and that most games today are built in this way.
I believe this analysis is still sound as far as it goes, but I now realize it did not go far enough. It
overlooked a third variety of game, one that I will identify as “achievement regulated.” This species of
game is over if and when a specified goal is reached. This is the kind of game identified by Suits in his
discussion of lusory goals, his analysis of games like chess, and his description of “games without
rules” and the scaling of Mt. Impossible. I will make and defend a number of claims related to this
third type of game.
First, I will speculate on its relationship to the other two varieties of games. I will identify
achievement-regulated as the most primitive form of gaming (among the three) for several reasons
including, but not limited to, its lesser or non-dependence on constitutive rules, its more central focus
on the lusory attitude, the likelihood that games of this sort were among the first played by our
ancestors, difficulties inherent in choosing “just right” achievements in contrast to just right hurdles,
and uncertainties related to game duration. I will summarize its advantages and disadvantages in
relationship to time and event regulated contests. The full analysis will also include a discussion of
hybrid games that employ more than one of these strategies for determining test duration. Finally, the
address will include a postscript on Suits’ confused analysis of the different ends, goals, and purposes
of games and their relationship to the issue of game duration.
References:
Kretchmar, S. (2005). Game flaws. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, XXXII, 36-48.
Suits, B. (2005). The grasshopper: Games, life and utopia. (Introduction by Thomas Hurka). Toronto:
Broadview Press.
Professional and Contact Information
R. Scott Kretchmar
Professor
Penn State University
[email protected]
23
Teresa Lacerda
Conference Keynote Address
Title: “Transcendence – An Aesthetic Category that Outlines the Aesthetic Value of Sport”
Abstract:
Although aesthetics of sport is broadly taken in account in certain academic circles it is still quite
absent from other sport contexts. In fact, to most people from the world of sport, speaking about the
aesthetics of sport means to single out its beauty. Nevertheless, the construct of aesthetic value had
been taking the place of beauty in contemporary aesthetics. This was important for two main reasons:
i) it opened the possibility of new approaches to aesthetic reflection about contemporary art and to the
consideration of other objects or activities in the scope of aesthetics, such as sports, and ii) it
broadened the range of aesthetic categories able to explain the aesthetic value of the most unexpected
and conspicuous artistic and aesthetic objects.
The lecture is focused in transcendence considered as an aesthetic category that fosters understanding
the aesthetic value of sport. Research about the subject will be presented (Lacerda, 2002; Ferreira,
2009; Lacerda and Graça, 2010) in order to support two main topics: transcendence and positive
aesthetic value and transcendence and negative aesthetic value.
References:
Lacerda, T. (2002). Elementos para a construção de uma Estética do Desporto. Dissertação de
Doutoramento. Porto, Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto.
Lacerda, T., Graça, M.L. (2010). The ugly in sport. An exploratory essay about the aesthetics of the ugly.
Ferreira, S. (2009). Estética do Desporto. Contributo para o esclarecimento desta temática a partir da
perspectiva de atletas veteranos. Dissertação de Mestrado. Porto, Faculdade de Desporto da
Universidade do Porto.
Biosketch:
Teresa Oliveira Lacerda is assistant professor with definitive nomination in the Faculty of Sport,
University of Porto, Portugal. Responsible for several units in all of the three cycles of studies—
graduation, master and doctoral courses—she is also responsible for the creation and development of
the aesthetics of sport unit for all three cycles, and supervises Master and PhD dissertations. She is a
member of the Centre for Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (area of Sport,
Education and Culture). Her research focuses on the aesthetics of sport. She has many international
and national scientific publications as book chapters and journal articles. These include Education for
the Aesthetics of Sport in Higher Education in the Sports Sciences. (2012, JPS), From Ode to Sport to
Contemporary Aesthetic Categories of Sport: Strength Considered as an Aesthetic Category (2011, SEP),
Da Estética do Desporto à Estética do Futebol (2011, RBCD), A Magia dos Jogos Desportivos e a Estética
do Desporto (2007, RPCD), Uma Aproximação Estética ao Corpo Desportivo (2007, RPCD). She regularly
holds sport in art exhibitions. She is a member of the editorial board of the Journal of the Philosophy of
Sport and of Fair Play - Journal of Philosophy, Ethics and Law of Sport. She is a member of the Executive
Council of the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport and vice president of the Latin
Association for the Philosophy of Sport.
24
Signe Larsen and Kenneth Aggerholm
Title: Between play and acrobatics - a phenomenological analysis of parkour
Abstract:
In parkour we see human beings perform a particular kind of bodily expertise on everyday street
corners. They use benches, stairs and rails for expressive physical activity. Parkour has its origins in the French
suburbs where it evolved as a subculture in the 1990s, and in recent years it has evolved on a worldwide scale.
The dominant academic interpretations of parkour have described it as a form of critical and ideological play. To
do parkour is in this view to practice an explicit critique of the modern and industrial city space and the
dominance of Western ‘achievement sport’ (Eichberg 1998). Such analyses focus primary on a symbolicdiscursive level, where parkour is a performance of play that enlightens us (as spectators) of the social
constitution of the urban space.
In our paper we take a different starting point. Practitioners often articulate parkour as the learning of
novel moves performed to pass efficiently and quickly through the city and as the ability to confront and
overcome obstacles. To understand this we will present an existential phenomenological analysis of the bodily
practice of traceurs with a focus on the lived experience of the practitioners. This is illuminated and analysed
through Merleau-Ponty´s (1961) phenomenological concepts of motor intentionality, concrete and abstract
movement, body schema and body space, and Peter Sloterdjik’s (2009, 2010) anthropology of practising. The
analysis will also draw on cases from ethnographical fieldwork and interviews with Danish practitioners, and it
will focus on the movement phenomena of play and acrobatics.
In the article “Play disabilities” (2012) Scott Kretchmar points to the fact, that play depends on an ability
to create an alternative relation to the world. In relation to this understanding parkour can be described as a
playful way of setting aside the concrete movements that define normal or typical behaviour in our daily lives
and put the objects of everyday spaces together in new and attractive configurations. However, parkour cannot
be fully comprehended as only a playing practice, and the lived experience of traceurs can assist challenging the
dichotomy between the “power of improvisation and joy” (paidia) and the “taste for gratuitous difficulty” (ludus)
(Caillois 1961, 27). In parkour the subject struggles to overcome challenge and obstacles that are created
through the alternative relation to different objects in spaces of everyday situations. Parkour involves an
attractive vertical tension for breaking the perception of possible movements through reaching out for the
impossible. The practitioners aim for a constant improvement of their bodily skills and their general ‘being-inthe-world’. Sloterdjik’s descriptions of acrobats and acrobatics allows analysing the effort to improve and refine
movements as a genuine part of this kind of embodied practice, which is an (at least) equally important
dimension as social critique and play. The analysis will in this way seek to enlighten our understanding of the
practice of parkour, and it will at the same time put the phenomenological concepts to the test in order to refine
our understanding of human practise and movement.
References:
Caillois, R. 1961. Man, Play and Games. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press
Eichberg, H. 1998. Body Cultures: Essays on Sport, Space and Idenitity.
Kretchmar, S. 2012. Play Disabilities: A Reason for Physical Educators to Rethink the Boundaries of Special
Education, Quest, 64
Merleau-Ponty, M. 1962. Phenomenology of perception. London: Routledge
Sloterdjik, P. 2013. You must change your life. Cambridge: Polity Press
Professional and Contact Information
Signe Højbjerre Larsen
Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics
University of Southern Denmark
[email protected]
Kenneth Aggerholm- Postdoc
Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics
University of Southern Denmark
[email protected]
25
Cimin Liang
Title: The Connotation of Cutting-Edge Sports Techniques
Keywords: Connotation of Technique, Philosophy of Technique, Cutting-edge technique, Technique
innovation,
Abstract:
Technology is one of the most complex social and cultural phenomenon that our humanity
faces. Technology like a mountain with different image viewed from different side. This situation
makes the concept being understood differently. The face of its portion is clearly seen from a location,
while it becomes blurred and new aspect appears if the foothold changed. Many definitions of
technology were shown from the sociological sense, the anthropological sense, the psychological
sense, the sense of natural science, and of course the philosophical sense and sense of sports science,
each with a unique knowledge and understanding and different from each other . This paper, limited
the extension of “technique” to the “sports cutting-edge technique”, explores the connotation of the
technique. A questionnaire was sent to sixty-four (64) experts in eight (8) different sports – artistic
gymnastics, diving, rhythmic gymnastics, table tennis, volleyball, track and field, swimming and weight
lifting. These experts, including Li Furong, Gao Jian, Deng Ruozeng, expressed their opinions about the
outstanding features and developing trends of the modern sports cutting-edge techniques. The results
of the study explain that sports cutting-edge techniques are the technical group at the highest level
sports techniques, which has the following 6 A- class connotation characteristics: First, high personal
technical style; Second, high competitive benefit in international arena; Third, high technique
innovation Form; Fourth, high difficulty degree; Fifth, high investment of research & development;
Sixth, high orientation of technique innovation.
References
[1] Cimin Liang On Frontier Technique of Competitive Sport, Beijing Sport University Press, Beijing,
2001, p.33-34
[2] Changyun Xu High Jump, On Success Law of China Advantage Sport Events, Chief editors:Yalong
Xie, Ruying Wang, People’s Sport
Publisher, Beijing, 1992, p 545
[3] Xiuwen Wu, Yingqiu Zhang. Techniques and Tactical of Top Table Tennis Players, Beijing Sport
University Press, Beijing,1993,p.110
[4] Cimin Liang: Study on the Dynamic Change of Element Difficulty Level and Age Structure of Men
Gymnasts Sport
Science No. 4, 1993; On Frontier Technique of Competitive Sport, Beijing Sport University Press,
2001, p. 72-73
Professional and Contact Information
Cimin Lianga, Ph. D.
Boys Program Director
Westside Dance and Gymnastics Academy
[email protected].
Bo Liub, M.A.
Lecturer, Physical Education Department
Huanghe Science & Technology College
[email protected]
26
Irena Martínková
Title: Dangerous sport in phenomenology and analytical philosophy
Keywords: Dangerous sport, phenomenology, analytical philosophy
Abstract
I shall briefly introduce the main characteristics of phenomenological and analytical
approaches to sport, and with an example of dangerous sport I shall discuss how appropriate usage of
both these approaches can describe a theme in a richer and more complete way.
This paper compares approaches to dangerous sport by (1) the analytical tradition, as
represented by Russell (2005), and (2) the phenomenological tradition, as examined by Müller (2008),
showing the strenghts and weaknesses of both of these approaches. The strength of phenomenology is
in its description of human existence and the structures of our experience, while the strength of
analytical philosophy is in its clarification of common concepts and in its logical argumentation. In
conclusion, I shall show how an appropirate combination of both could be enriching for the philosophy
of sport.
References
MARTÍNKOVÁ, I. and HSU, L. (2009). Justification of Dangerous Sports and the Question
of Values. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 5(2), 93–99.
MÜLLER, A. (2008). Risikosport: Suizid oder Lebenskunst? Hamburg: Merus.
RUSSELL, J. S. (2005). The Value of Dangerous Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,
32(1), 1–19.
Professional and Contact Information
Irena Martínková
Lecturer in the Philosophy of Sport
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport
Charles University in Prague
[email protected]
27
Douglas McLaughlin
Title: Winning Is Not the Only Good Thing: In Defense of Losing
Keywords: Competition, winning, losing,
Abstract:
Recently, philosophers of sport have defended the merits of competition in response to its
many critics. Bob Simon defends competition as a mutual quest for excellence through challenge. R.
Scott Kretchmar and Tim Elcombe defend competition on the basis of an anthropological,
phenomenological account that trumpets the values associated with the quest for victory. Excellences
that are central to the purpose of competitive sport can be experienced in victory or defeat.
Throughout the literature, philosophers of sport have made a variety of arguments both implicit and
explicit pertaining to the virtues of competition.
But does the sting of losing persist? A defense of competition that does not address in negative
consequences of competition seems incomplete. The values associated with trying to win do not fully
address the deep concerns about losing central to many criticisms of competition. By not considering
the value of losing, recent arguments support competition for reasons that seem to be distinct from
and in spite of the concerns associated with losing. But it is possible to make a strong defense of losing
as being valuable in and of itself. This is quite distinct from concerns about competitors who
purposely try to lose, which is a separate debate. But when competition is honestly pursued, losing is
worthwhile in itself and provides value that directly justifies competition against it most ardent critics.
The meaning of defeat resides in metaphysical and axiological considerations. The
metaphysical considerations reside in the comparative nature of competition. In determining relative
abilities, knowledge of results even in a loss provides the opportunity of self-knowledge. The
axiological considerations reside in the response to losing. As a perfectionist practice, competitive
sport requires striving for excellence. Losing provides valuable feedback in the effort to meaningfully
and strategically pursue excellence in future competitions. The failure associated with losing is not
absolute. Faced with humility and resiliency, losing is an opportunity for self-reflection and strategic
self-improvement. Recognizing the value of losing not only directly diffuses criticisms of competition,
but it presents new avenues for promoting meaningful experiences of sport.
References:
Nicholas Dixon, “On Winning and Athletic Superiority,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 26 (1999):
10-26
R. Scott Kretchmar and Tim L. Elcombe, “In Defense of Competition and Winning: Revisiting Athletic
Tests and Contest,” in Ethics in Sport, 2nd ed., ed. William J. Morgan (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,
2007): 181-194.
Robert L. Simon. Fair Play: The Ethics of Sport (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2010).
Professional and Contact Information
Doug McLauglin
Assistant professor
California State University Northridge
[email protected]
28
Michael J. McNamee
Conference Keynote Address
Title: Paralympism and the limits of biotechnology
Keywords: Paralympic, Paralympism, elective surgery, disability, ethics
Abstract:
In this presentation I critically discuss four real cases arising from Paralympic sports. Two
involve the use of legitimate therapeutic interventions that additionally have enhancement effects in
sports, specifically arising in the cases of (1) botulinim toxin injections to decrease muscle spasticity
and (2) achilles tendon lengthening surgery to ease gait. The third and fourth cases involve
amputation of limbs that either (3) enhance sporting performance; or (4) enable disability sport
membership of an otherwise able bodied person, by the use of elective, non–clinically indicated,
amputation surgery . I evaluate the cases ethically, offering suitable policy responses in cases 1 and 2
to enable these athletes to participate, while arguing that in Cases 3 and 4 that although individuals
may have entitlements to body modification surgery under Mill’s ‘harm principle', it does not follow
that organisers must accept their participation in events such as the Paralympic Games. I situate these
cases in the context of the IPC’s four stated values: courage, determination, inspiration and equality. I
argue that disability sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee, should
ban such practices and better articulate their value base in order to preserve the integrity of disability
sports.
Biosketch:
Mike McNamee is Professor of Applied Ethics in the College of Engineering at Swansea University,
Professor Chaire Olympique Henri de Baillet Latour & Jacques Rogge 2013-14 at the University of
Ghent/Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium, and Visiting Professor 2013-16 at Hunan Normal
University, China. He is Founding Editor (2007) of the international research journal Sport, Ethics, and
Philosophy; previously he served on the Editorial Board of Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 2000-7. He is
Editor of Routledge's books series "Ethics and Sports" (with Jim Parry). His books include Sport, Medicine,
Ethics (2014) Reader in Sports Ethics (2011, Editor); Sports, Virtues and Vices (2008, Routledge). He is a
former President of the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport, a member of the Association
since 1991, Founding Chair of the British Philosophy of Sport Association, and the Vice President of the
European Association for the Philosophy of Sport. He is married to Cheryl and has two lovely daughters:
Megan and Ffion. He plays tennis and golf and runs regularly.
29
Sam Morris
Title: Moral Luck and the Talent Problem
Keywords: moral luck, constitutive luck, circumstantial luck, talent
Abstract:
My objective in this project is to explore the concept of moral luck as it relates to sports. I am
not especially interested in resultant luck. Rather, my attention is more closely with constitutive and
circumstantial luck. As a foundation I draw from both Bernard Williams’ and Thomas Nagel’s classic
handling of moral luck, generally. Within the philosophy of sport are similar explorations of this nexus
by Robert Simon and David Carr that also factor into the present work. My intent is to put a new lens in
front of a puzzle drawn from Torbjörn Tännsjö’s well-known article “Is Our Admiration of Sports
Heroes Facistoid?” Specifically, the idea that we might admire an athlete who excels without having
worked hard for it (i.e., though talent per se). If we may call this puzzle “the talent problem,” the
questions driving the present work are as follows: 1| what is the relationship between moral luck and
the talent problem, and 2| can this relationship provide a prescription for morally assessing the talent
problem?
References:
Simon, Robert. “Deserving to be Lucky: Reflections of the Role of Luck and Desert in Sports.” Journal of
the Philosophy of Sport 34 (2007): 13-25.
Tännsjö, Torbjörn. “Is Our Admiration of Sports Heroes Fascistoid?” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
25 (1998): 23-34.
Williams, Bernard and Thomas Nagel. “Moral Luck.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society,
Supplementary Volumes 50 (1976): 115-151.
Professional and Contact Information
Sam P. Morris, Ph.D., Clinical Faculty
Miami University
Kinesiology and Health
Sport Leadership and Management
[email protected]
30
David Myers
Title: The aesthetic properties of competitiveness
Keywords: aesthetics, sport, game, competition
Abstract:
Here I address how competitiveness affects the aesthetic in sports and games. While sports and
games may be considered separate entities elsewhere, I consider them equally here as regards their
competitive nature.
This is, to some extent, well-trodden ground. Positions already drawn are that competition
precludes the aesthetic in sport (e. g., Best, 1974, 1980) and, conversely, that competition provides,
even is necessary, for the aesthetic in sport (e. g., see Kupfer, 1975 as regards sport, and Humble, 1993
as regards game). Complicating matters further is that some consider competitiveness intrinsic to
sport, or, at the very least, “the great majority of sport” (Best, 1980, p. 70); others consider
competitiveness but one of other, equally defining characteristics of sports and games (Vossen, 2004).
This complication allows for intermediate positions asserting that the aesthetic in sports and games is
sometimes affected by competitiveness and sometimes not -- but not necessarily so.
In this essay, I consider competitiveness a critically defining characteristic of sports and games,
broadly, as Kupfer (1975) does regarding sport -- i. e., as activity devoted to “overcoming opposition”
(p. 84) -- and as Suits (2005) does regarding games -- i. e., as means “only permitted by rules, where
rules prohibit more efficient in favour of less efficient means” (pp. 48-9). With this move of
interpreting rules-determined prohibitions in sports and games as oppositions to overcome, I argue
that the competitive-based purposiveness of sports coincides closely with that of games.
I then interpret the persistence of those intermediate and ambivalent positions regarding the
influence of competitiveness on aesthetics as an indication that sports and games require a certain sort
of editing -- by participants and spectators alike -- in order to access and reveal their unique aesthetic
properties. This editing process is dictated by the uncertainty of outcome -- randomness -- that is
fundamentally and necessarily associated with competitiveness, which simultaneously defines and
produces the aesthetic in sports and games. Thus, some of the inconsistencies observed in attempts to
conceptualize the aesthetic in sports and games may well be consistent with attributing their aesthetic
properties to competitiveness.
References:
Best, D. (1974). The aesthetic in sport. British Journal of Aesthetics, 14(3), 197-213.
Best, D. ( 1980). Art and sport. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 14(2), 69-80.
Humble, P. N. (1993). Chess as an art form. British Journal of Aesthetics, 33(1), 59.
Kupfer, J. (1975). Purpose and beauty in sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 2(1), 83-90.
Suits, B. (2005). The grasshopper. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press.
Vossen, D. (2004). The nature and classification of games. Avante, 10(1), 53-68.
Professional and Contact Information
David Myers
Professor of Mass Communication
Loyola University New Orleans USA
[email protected]
31
Arvi Pakaslahti
Title: Series, Ranking Systems and Betterness
Keywords: Series, ranking systems, betterness, goal difference, meta contests
Abstract:
It could be argued that it is important or desirable that the official result of a sports contest is
such that it reflects at least reasonably well the betterness of the teams or athletes in that contest (i.e.
that it reflects at least reasonably well how much athletic excellence the teams or athletes showed in
that contest compared to each other). Thus it could be argued that there should be at least a
reasonably good “fit” between the betterness of the athletes or teams in some sports contest and the
official result of that contest. I call this view the Fittingness Ideal about Betterness.
Sports contests can be divided into individual contests and meta contests (see Loland 2002,
99). Meta contests can be divided into series, knockout contests and contests which are a mixture of a
series and a knockout contest (see Loland 2002, 99-102). It seems to me clear that series are, from the
point of view of the Fittingness Ideal about Betterness, better than the two other types of meta
contests. This is so because in series (bad) luck tends to affect the final placings of the athletes or
teams less than in the two other types of meta contests.In each meta contest some kind of system is
used for determining the final placings of the athletes or teams that participated in that contest. Each
such system may be called a ranking system. In this paper I identify and discuss three different kinds of
ranking systems that can be used in a series in a team ball game.
In simple point-orientated ranking systems and complex point-orientated ranking systems points
gathered by different teams from wins, draws and losses determine the placings of the teams, except in
those cases in which two or more teams have the same amount of points. The difference between
simple point-orientated ranking systems and complex point-orientated ranking systems is that in the
former a team always gets the same amount of points from each win, draw and loss (e.g. three, one and
zero), whereas in a complex point-orientated ranking system a team does not always get the same
amount of points from each win, draw and/or loss (e.g. some wins may be worth three points and
some two points). In goal difference-orientated ranking systems, on the other hand, the goal difference
(or equivalent in those team ball games in which goals do not exist) of each team determines the
placings of the teams, except in those cases in which two or more teams have the same goal difference.
My discussion of these three ranking systems consists of two parts. First, I discuss which one of
them is the best one from the point of view of the Fittingness Ideal about Betterness. Secondly, I
discuss whether the ranking system that is the best from the point of view of the Fittingness Ideal
about Betterness faces such problems that all things considered it should be rejected in favour of one of
the other ranking systems.
Bibliography
Loland, Sigmund (2002): Fair Play in Sport. Routledge, London.
Torres, Cesar R. & Peter F. Hager (2005): “Competitive Sport, Evaluation Systems, and Just Results: The Case of
Rugby Union’s Bonus-Point System”, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, Vol. 32, 208-222.
Torres, Cesar R. & Peter F. Hager (2007): “Just Evaluation Systems in Competitive Sport”, Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation & Dance, Vol. 78, 27-32.
Professional and Contact Information
Arvi Pakaslahti, Junior researcher
Public Choice Research Centre
University of Turku, Finland
[email protected]
32
Jim Parry
Title: On Biting in Sport - The case of Luis Suárez
Key Words: biting, Suárez, assault, consent, harm, sport rules
Abstract:
So: the Uruguayan footballer Luis Suárez has confessed, apologised and given assurances as to
future good behaviour, after his World Cup assault on the Italian defender Chiellini. There were three
immediate excuses and mitigations offered, which we dismiss:
It was inconsequential
It was no different from many other ‘assaults’
It was not particularly serious
Our central question has a different focus: we want to ask what makes biting in sport such a
bad thing, especially since it does not seem always to threaten as much harm to opponents as some
other practices. We examine the place of biting in sports rules, especially in combat and contact sports,
and the role of consent and criminal liability, before moving to consider when and why biting is seen
as unacceptable.
We consider arguments from harm (direct and indirect), skin penetration (bodily integrity and
transgression), ‘dirty fighting’ and animalism.
Finally, we consider the topical case of Luis Suárez, distinguishing reactive from proactive
biting, and reactive from instrumental behaviour. We also consider arguments that offer psychological
and cultural mitigation, and we assess the justice of FIFA’s punishment.
We conclude that:
there is at least a case to be considered that Suárez’ actions were intended to be
consequential, and that biting is different from other types of assault, especially in
contact games
biting is the kind of assault to the possibility of which participants do not consent, so
that it is actionable in criminal law.
whilst psychological and cultural ‘explanations’ may shed some light on background,
motivations and attitudes, they do not affect the above points, and provide no excuse or
mitigation.
our further explanations for the unacceptability of biting in sport – i.e. that it threatens
harm, is ‘dirty’, transgressive and animalistic – go some way to indicate ways in which
such practices might compromise the potential of sport for moral education
In final comments, we argue that there was no unfairness or unjustifiable harshness in Suárez’
punishment, that no serious issues were raised in employment law, and that FIFA bore no special
responsibility for the treatment (if, indeed, that were appropriate) and rehabilitation of the player.
Indeed, we argue, the onus is on Suárez to demonstrate that he can be an acceptable opponent.
Professional and Contact Information
Prof Jim Parry
FTVS, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
Email: [email protected]
33
Jose-Luis Perez-Triviño
Title: Sport Enhancement: from Natural Doping to Brain Stimulation
Keywords: doping, enhancement, neurosciencie, brain stimulation,
Abstract:
Doping, or in more morally neutral terms, enhancement, has always been present in sport
practice and not only at the present time, which is marked by professionalism and competitiveness.
The latest development in doping seems linked to biotechnological advances, and one of the
techniques that will apparently be particularly important in the near future is neuroscience, notably
transcranial stimulators. These devices promise to improve not only physiological aspects in sport
performance, but also mental and emotional ones. On the other hand, they can seriously affect sport
ethics insofar as they can be economically accessible to professional and amateur athletes.
References:
Berghmans Ron, ter Meulen R., Malizia A.& Vos R. (2011). Scientific, ethical, and social issues in mood
enhancement. Savulescu J. Ter Meulen, R. & Kahane G. (eds.) Enhancing Human Capacities. Oxford; Blackwell.
Davis, N. J. (2013). Neurodoping: Brain Stimulation as a Performance-Enhancing Measure. Sports Medicine, 43
(8), doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0027-z
Eronia, O. (2012). Doping mentale and concetto di salute: a possibile regolamentazione legislative? Archivio
penale, 3.
Foddy, B. (2011). “Enhancing Skill”. Savulescu J. Ter Meulen, R. & Kahane G. (eds.) Enhancing Human Capacities.
Oxford; Blackwell.
Goodall, S., Howatson, G., Romer, L., & Ross, E. (2012). Transcranial magnetic stimulation in sport science: A
commentary. European Journal of Sport Science. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.704079
Hoberman, J. (1992). Mortal Engines. The Science of Performance and the Dehumanization of Sport. New
York:The Free Press.
Holme, S. & McNamee, M. (2011). Physical Enhancement: what Baseline, Whose Judgment?Savulescu J. Ter
Meulen, R. & Kahane G. (eds.) Enhancing Human Capacities. Oxford; Blackwell.
Housden, Ch.R.. Morein-Zamir, S. & Sahakian, B.J, (2011). “Cognitive Enhancing Drugs: Neuroscience and Society”
iSavulescu, J.-Ter Meulen, R.-Kahane, G. (eds.) Enhancing Human Capacities. Oxford; Blackwell.
Kanai R, Chaieb L, Antal A, Walsh V. & Paulus W. (2008). Frequency-dependent electrical stimulation of the visual
cortex. Curr Biol. 18(23).
LeUnes, A. (2011). Sport Psychology. London:Icon Books.
Miah, A. (2011). Physical Enhancement: The State of Art. Savulescu J. Ter Meulen, R. & Kahane G. (eds.)
Enhancing Human Capacities. Oxford; Blackwell.
Pérez-Triviño, J.L. (2011). Gene Doping and the Ethics of Sport: Between Enhancement and
Posthumanism"; International Journal of Sports Science 2011; 1 (1).
Pérez-Triviño, J.L. (2013). “Cyborgsportpersons: Between Disability and Enhancement; Physical Culture and
Sport. Studies and Research. 57, (1).
Sandberg, A. (2011). Cognition Enhancement: Upgrading the Brain. Savulescu, J.-Ter Meulen, R.& Kahane, G.
(eds.) Enhancing Human Capacities. Oxford; Blackwell.
Sandel, M. (2007). The case against Perfection, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (USA)
Professional and Contact Information
Jose-Luis Perez-Triviño
Associate professor of Philosophy of Law (Pompeu Fabra University).
President of “Spanish Association of Philosophy of Sport”
Director of “Fair Play. Journal of Philosophy, Ethics and Sports Law”
[email protected]
34
Zuzanna Rucinska
Title: Radically Enacted Creativity in Sports
Key Words: Creativity, Imagination, Sensorimotor, Enactivism, Affordances
Abstract
“Tactical creativity” (Memmert et al. 2010) is a useful skill in sports, though hard to achieve.
For example, in the in situation of attacking or advancing (as opposed to defending), on-the-spot
‘creative’ maneuver that can surprise the defendant is beneficial to the game. As Memmert & Roth
(2007) claim, “creativity entails varying, rare and flexible decision-making in complex game
situations… (but) it is not clear how this type of thinking is developed.”
This paper will challenge the common assumptions in cognitive sciences and sports psychology
that creativity (or creative improvisation) requires conceptual thinking or that it is explicitly
representational in character. Instead, I will propose a notion of radically enacted creativity, a result of
using one’s sensorimotor skills (coupling of perception and action) on exploring contextual
affordances and participating in shared activities. It is the idea that creativity can be conceptualized as
putting experiences (not ideas) together in a new way, which is an embodied and enacted skill. I will
argue that tactical creativity in sports should be understood as such enactive capacity, giving reasons
why it is unattractive to believe in mental motor plans or imaginings (van Leeuwen 2011) as guiding
creative behaviours. This approach expands the philosophical repertoire that others have discussed
regarding creativity and sport in the discipline (Aggerholm 2013; Zimmerman & Chung-Saura 2013).
I will first discuss the criteria of creativity in sport psychology: originality, flexibility, fluency of
thinking (in Memmert et al., 2010), and discuss them in light of two very different philosophical
proposals: traditional Representational Models (RM) of creativity, and the new proposal of Radically
Enactive (RE) creativity. I will challenge the RM approach and suggest why RE approach is a viable
alternative, if not a more promising one, to understanding emergence and development of creativity. I
will also discuss and rebut potential challenges to the RE account (such as the argument that dealing
with the absent and the abstract requires representations), arguing for the role of environmental and
social affordances and narrative scaffolds as sufficient explanans of some imaginative and creative
behaviours as the ones found in sports contexts.
The paper will conclude that radically enactive creativity serves as a good predictive model of
improvement and innovation in creating new sports tactics. In terms of applied sport philosophy, I will
propose suggestions to coaches of how RE creativity could be developed, basing on the success of this
approach in other domains like stage acting and family therapy.
References:
Van Leeuwen, N. (2011). Imagination is Where the Action Is. The Journal of Philosophy, 108(2), 55-77.
Hutto, D.D. and Myin, E. (2013). Radicalizing Enactivism: Basic Minds without Content. Cambridge: MIT
Press.
Bishop, J.M. and Martin, A.O. (Eds.) (2014). Contemporary Sensorimotor Theory, Studies in Applied
Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics Vol. 15. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Professional and Contact Information
Zuzanna Rucinska
PhD candidate at the University of Hertfordshire, UK
Early-Stage Researcher of the Marie-Curie Initial Training Network ‘TESIS’
[email protected]
35
John S. Russell
Waren Fraleigh Distinguished Scholar Lecture
Title: Resiliance
Abstract:
This paper argues that resilience is the central virtue in sport and a cardinal virtue in a human
life. These large claims are made more striking by the fact that resilience is an overlooked virtue. It has
gone generally unnoticed by virtue theorists and received no systematic treatment by sport
philosophers. Yet it is difficult to think of a human life succeeding without drawing on this virtue, and
it is particularly fundamental to taking on the challenges that sport presents.
The phenomenon of human resilience has, nevertheless, been studied extensively over the past
50 years by psychologists, including sport psychologists. But this research lacks clarity about the
concept of resilience and makes no effort to connect empirical findings regarding human resilience to
virtue theory. This paper draws, in part, on the psychologists' research to clarify the concept of
resilience, explain its fundamental role in sport, and how it fits broadly within a classical conception of
virtue. These efforts shed light on the special value of sport to its participants and its role in human
culture and progress. The centrality of resilience to sport also suggests that sport requires a
conception of virtue that is not merely an extension of classical or contemporary cardinal virtues.
Sport may require its own distinctive listing and ordering of virtues. Thus, reflection on the role of
resilience in sport may help to inform and encourage development of a distinctive theory of virtue in
sport.
Biosketch
John Russell teaches philosophy at Langara College in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. He has
edited the Journal for the Philosophy of Sport for 8 years and has published widely in philosophy of
sport. He is 2014 Warren P. Fraleigh Distinguished Scholar and received the IAPS Distinguished
Service Award in 2012.
36
Takuya Sakamoto
Title: The Body of the Sports Coach as Site of Existential Meaning
Keywords: Human body, existential meaning, educational relationship, anger
Abstract:
This study aims to elucidate the mode of being of the body of the sport coach as her/his existential meaning.
Existential meaning means the sport coach’s raison d’etre which is acquired implicitly by her/himself. I show a
new perspective concerning this kind of existence for the sport coach or PE teacher. The human body is
discussed relying on phenomenological theories of the body, which include Merleau-Ponty. Human body theory
has shown that the human body not only functions as medical and physiological soma but also plays significant
roles in human existence and human relationships. An existential viewpoint offers many possibilities concerning
the human body as site of existential meaning for individuals. In this light, the body of the sport coach can be
examined in terms of how it acquires her/his existential meaning in sport coaching and PE class. Past research
has failed to focus on this, yet it seems that in sport instruction and PE, ‘who instructs?’ is as equally or more
important than ‘how do we instruct?’ This is shown to be so because the very same instruction and method do
not necessarily lead to the same results. For this reason, the individual existential meaning of the sport coach
could be a significant topic in sport philosophy.
Many phenomenologists have argued for the importance of the human body, as Merleau-Ponty evinces. His
views are prominent here, but additionally two other thinkers are engaged:
1. Heidegger. While, as Sartre commented, Heidegger discussed the body insufficiently in Being and Time,
his late lecture, Zollikon Seminars, provides a fuller description of the existential aspect of the human body. As
Aho (2009) points out, the relation between Heidegger’s late insight and Merleau-Ponty’s one has not been
sufficiently examined. Presently, I explore this connection.
2. Van Manen. He is a phenomenologist of education who points out the significance of phenomenology as a
method to describe educational practice. He does not discuss sport or PE directly, however his educational
viewpoint provides effective suggestions to examine existentially not only players but also sport coaches and PE
teachers. He shows specifically the importance of an existential perspective in educational relationships.
Accordingly, I consider the existential meaning of the coach’s body and, especially, focus on ‛anger’as an
existential bodily action. This phenomenon, anger, is generally understood as the expression of an inner
psychological state. Merleau-Ponty, however, understands it as an existential bodily action of the individual
human being. In light of this understanding, the ‘anger’ often expressed by sport coaches or PE teachers toward
players or students could be understood as a phenomenon that closely engages the mode of her/his existence
beyond mere psychological meaning. Additionally, since phenomenological theory of the human body is always
aware of human relationships, the argument of existential bodily action of sport coaches enables us to extend the
discussion to the player’s existential status. In other words, examining the existential meaning of the body of the
sport coach could shed new light on how a human being’s existence engages in sport.
References:
Merleau-Ponty, M. (2012) Phenomenology of Perception (NY, Routledge).
Heidegger, M.: Boss, M. (ed.) (2001) Zollikon Seminars: Protocol Conversations Letters (Evanston, Northern
University Press).
Van Manen, M. (1990) Researching Lived Experience (Albany, NY, State University of New York Press).
Professional and Contact Information
Takuya Sakamoto,
Assistant professor,
Meisei University, Tokyo, JAPAN
[email protected],
37
Masami Sekine & Takayuki Hata
Title: Anthropology of Solidarity: From Defeat to Existential Solidarity
Keywords: win and defeat, self-overcoming, achieving solidarity
Abstract:
The aim of victory is structurally incorporated in sporting matches (competitions). Even
without the intention of winning, it is still possible for a player to obtain a victorious outcome
(although in the overwhelming majority of cases, it will be that a player will crave victory while being
unable to attain it). Here the problem is not with the spirit or psychology of the players, but with the
structure of the game or match itself. If we analyze the problem of this structure, we will notice one
thing, namely, the fact that in a given race or match, only one player (or one team) can achieve
complete victory, i.e., it is the structure that produces a solitary winner and a multitude with the
experience of defeat. In a tournament with 100 participants, only one will emerge victorious; in an
athletics race, only 1 of the 8 finalists can be the winner. Although sports are said to be the pursuit of
excellence (P. Weiss, 1969; R. Simon, 1991), what do sports bring to the majority of humans who are
not winners, when victory cannot be achieved by all? When excellence is not necessarily the reward,
could it be that humanity also has something to gain from defeat? Generally, in the real world, defeat
leads to the loss of many things such as money, honor, and social status. For some athletes and teams, a
loss in the finals might retain some realistic form of profit to some extent such as prize money for
runners-up or a record as a contender in the final match. Still, even they will have foregone the
possibility of profit that might have been obtained in victory. However, while to suffer defeat may
entail the loss of some things, it is not the loss of all things. It may sound strange to say that sports are
an activity in which humanity gains something from defeat. Even with decisive defeats where the
evaluation of onlookers does not extend even to participants’ evaluation as taking part “in the mutual
pursuit of excellence,” there yet remains a chance for humanity. From this study, the first conclusion to
be drawn is that in accepting an attitude of defeat, we grant our inner selves opportunities for “selfovercoming,” which is separate from victory. Defeat is not something to be celebrated, and nor is it a
subject to take comfort from. Rather, it is a starting point from which we begin to overcome ourselves.
As a second conclusion, we might say as follows. Focus on a course of methodical action and selfovercoming exist not “outcomes” but as “processes.” Here, we focus on actions and self-overcoming
can be reported as the specific content of spiritual satisfaction (inner fulfillment) in and of themselves.
References:
Nietzsche, F. (2005). Thus spoke Zarathustra: a book for everyone and nobody (G. Parkes, (Trans.). New
York: Oxford University Press.
Weiss, P. (1969). Sport: a philosophic inquiry. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press
Simon, R. L. (1991). Fair play: sports, values, and society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press
Personal and Contact Information
Takayuki Hata
Faculty of Education
Nagasaki University
[email protected]
Masami Sekine
Faculty of Education
Okayama University
[email protected]
38
Tara Smith
Title: “Something to Behold: The Spiritual Value of Art and Sport”
Key words: value and spiritual value; autoelicity (end in itself); spectatorship; meaning;
comprehensive world view (personal philosophy of life)
Abstract:
This paper will explore the most fundamental similarities and differences in the value of art and the
value of sport (principally, value for the audience). Many have observed that the realms of art and sport share
several common features (their intensification of ordinary experience, their isolation from utilitarian practicality,
the passions aroused, displays of great skill, sense of community, ritualistic components, etc.). In terms of
capturing the core value of each enterprise, however, these similarities are relatively superficial. This paper will
posit a more fundamental common dimension: the way in which both sport and art offer spiritual values – in
particular, by making materially manifest certain abstract ideas. It will address both how they do this and why
this is a genuine value.
In tracing this, however, we will also see how art and sport manifest abstractions in somewhat differing
ways, such that the exact spiritual values available from each are distinct. Thus I will also explain these
differences.
Sport, as is widely recognized, offers the display of many valuable traits of personal character, such as
discipline, resilience, poise under pressure, or strategic ingenuity. I will argue that art, by contrast, provides a
different order of value: the tangible, perceptible presentation of a philosophical worldview. Human beings go
about their lives – and need to go about their lives – on the basis of an at least implicit, comprehensive “big
picture” outlook on life – a set of basic suppositions about the nature of the playing field in which we pursue our
various ends. Put a little differently, we operate with a set of working hypotheses concerning what is real in life
and what is reliable, concerning what is important and what is possible or doable. Individual works of art put
such worldviews on display, objectifying them in existential reality, on the canvas or on the stage.
In sport, the spiritual values exhibited are comparatively circumscribed (resilience, poise, and so on).
While there is definite value in witnessing the realization of such traits, it is a different kind of value than that
which art offers. While this may suggest that art is the greater value, we will also observe certain values of sport
that art, as a kind, does not offer (specifically, concerning the nature of the traits that are celebrated in sport, and
the actual, as opposed to the “fictional,” character of many of its values). I shall also consider the possibility that
on a different plane, sport does affirm a worldview – not by means of anyone’s “making a statement” in the way
that an artist conveys themes through a sculpture or a poem, but through the very nature and structure of
athletic competition. The point, in the end, is not to rank the values of art and sport, but to better understand the
exact – and significant – spiritual values offered by each.
References:
Randolph Feezel, Sport, Philosophy, & Good Lives, 2013, chapter 8 “Sport and the Question
of the Meaning of Life”
Stephen Mumford, Watching Sport: Aesthetics, Ethics and Emotions, London: Routledge,
2011.
Tim L. Elcombe, “Sport, Aesthetic Experience, and Art as the Ideal Embodied Metaphor,”
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, volume 39, no. 2,
October 2012
Professional and Contact Information
Tara Smith
Professor, Department of Philosophy
University of Texas at Austin
[email protected]
39
Sarah Teetzel
Title: Protecting Child Athletes in Sport
Keywords: Paternalism, Eligibility, Children
Abstract:
The philosophy of childhood literature demonstrates that children are a vulnerable population in need
of special consideration and protection. Scholars and legislators have argued that children have not yet
developed the capacity to make rational, independent decisions, and, as a result, their guardians must
make paternalistic decisions for them in their best interests. International agreements, such as the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, recognize the unique status of children and their need for
protection (David, 2012). In sport, rules, regulations, and policies are in place to protect child athletes
from violence, exploitation, over-training, and coercion. Policies such as the International Olympic
Committee’s Consensus Statement on Training the Child Athlete and the World Anti-Doping Agency’s
stipulations regarding minors in the World Anti-Doping Code function to protect child athletes’ rights
and open futures. Rule 43 in the Olympic Charter states the International Olympic Committee does not
impose age limits for competitors; however, the rule also contains the clause that an International
Federation can restrict events to athletes of specific ages as long as the IOC Executive Board approves
the eligibility constraint. Past problems with very young gymnasts and figure skaters rising to the top
level of sport led to the enforcement of minimum age criteria in certain sports. There is considerable
discrepancy in the minimum and maximum age limits across the events contested at both the Olympic
Games and the Youth Olympic Games. As a result, young athletes can compete in some sports at the
highest levels, but not in others. Yet age limits only restrict young athletes’ eligibility to enter
competitions and cannot control the quantity or intensity of their training. Drawing on the work of
Tymowksi (2000) and Dixon (2007), as well as past decisions involving minors implemented by the
International Olympic Committee and the Court of Arbitration for Sport, this paper argues that
international sports organizations are not doing enough to protect child athletes. Moreover, this paper
argues from a consequentialist perspective that the existence of Youth Olympic Games exacerbates
these problems.
References:
David, P. (2012).Ensuring the human rights of young athletes. In Sport, Ch ldren’ R ght nd V olence
Prevention, eds C. Brackenridge, T. Kay, & D. Rhind, 161-163. London: Brunel University.
Dixon, N. (2007). Sport, parental autonomy, and children’s right to an open future. Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport, 34 (2), 147-159.
Tymowski, G. (2000). Rights and wrongs: Children’s participation in high-performance sports. In Cross
Cultural Perspectives in Child Advocacy, eds. I. R. Berson, M. J. Berson, & B. C. Cruz. Charlotte, NC:
Information Age Publishing.
Professional and Contact Information
Sarah Teetzel
Assistant Professor
University of Manitoba
[email protected],
40
Yumi Terayama
Title: Consideration of learning contents for dance in the Japanese Physical Education Curriculum
KeyWords: Physical education, Dance education, Intention, expression
Abstract:
This presentation discusses a unique conception of physical and dance education in Japan,
“taiiku” (Physical Education) and intends to discuss and argue for its unique conception of education
through movement.
In Japan, “taiiku” (physical education) is implemented from elementary school to the
university. The “taiiku” aims neither at teaching sport nor dance, but rather it seeks to emphasize that
it is important to educate the body through sport or dance. It is because it will be said that what is
necessary is just to entrust a private sports club and visualize public benefit of community sports club
if what is necessary is just to teach a sport and a dance as it is and it will become. So, in a “taiiku” class
the learning contents which contribute to a student's physical education must be examined by using
sport and dance as teaching materials.
The next idea that is explored presently inquire into the contents of study of a particular dance
style. Probably, given any dance style or choreography, many people imagine that it is simply reduced
to the choreography that a teacher gives the students. However, it is not limited to this. Rather, the
teacher will teach how to dance and concurrently use the dance as teaching method. However, this
does not mean teaching anything through dance, but instead it shows only how to move in and through
dance. A crucial element in this process is the element of expression through movements, for example,
which is necessary for dance. It is accompanied by a confirming process of the dancer’s intention and
his/her own movements. This process entails a communication between dance teacher and students,
and in dance includes the creation that arises from the exchange between them. I think it is important
to make students aware of their own "intention" through this process, fully utilizing the essence of
dance for this purpose. For this reason, it will-be important to build into the learning contents the
process of training the body, accompanied by communications skills and the goal to enhance the
students’ power of expression. In other words, in a dance class, it is vital to pay attention to the interrelationships between learners, rather than only focusing on providing learners with existing motor
skills, such as specific dance steps.
References
Margaret N. H. Doubler (1957) Dance: A Creative Art Experience. University of Wisconsin Press
Edmund Husserl (2012 : first publishedin1931) Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology
(Routledge Classics). Routledge, NY
Maxine Sheets (1979) On Movement and Objects in Motion: The Phenomenology of the Visible in
Dance. Journal of Aesthetic Education13 (2): 33-46.
Professional and Contact Information
Yumi Terayama
Associate Professor
University of Tsukuba
[email protected]
41
Cesar Torres
Title: Boxing and the Youth Olympic Games
Keywords: Youth Olympic Games, boxing, health, autonomy, Olympism
Abstract: The Youth Olympic Games (YOG) were inaugurated in 2010 and constitute not only the International
Olympic Committee’s (IOC) latest enterprise but also the largest multisport international event for young
athletes. Its Competitive Program is based on that of the Olympic Games, but with fewer disciplines and events
while also featuring some unique new disciplines such as the basketball three-on-three tournament and other
innovations such as the inclusion of contests for mixed-gender teams. Although the YOG are intended for
athletes between 15 and 18 years of age, each International Sport Federation determines a specific age bracket
for its sport. In the case of boxing, the second YOG to be held in Nanjing, China later this year will include 78
boxers (60 men and 18 women) between 17 and 18 years of age competing in ten and three categories for men
and women, respectively.
The motivation for the YOG is as much the athletic competition as the values that have inspired and
framed the Olympic Games since their inception in the late nineteenth century, a vision known as “Olympism.”
Thus, as former IOC President Jacques Rogge articulated before the inaugural YOG, “The main goal . . . is not
competition as such. The main goal is to give the youngsters an education based on Olympic values.”2 In other
words, the YOG have been envisioned as a sizeable and unique Olympic pedagogical effort. At the very core of
the YOG is the attempt to familiarize young athletes with Olympism and its values “in a fun and festive spirit and
to raise awareness of important issues such as the benefits of a healthy lifestyle, the fight against doping, global
challenges and their role as sports ambassadors in their communities.”3 In this regard, the IOC announced in a
press release following its Executive Board approval of the YOG in 2007 that “Sports events would be carefully
chosen to protect the health of the young athletes.”4
In this presentation I will argue that boxing is not a suitable sport to advance the professed goals of the
YOG and that it should be removed from the event’s Competitive Program. One line of argument will focus on the
questionable impact of boxing on the health of young athletes. Issues of autonomy, consent, and paternalism will
be discussed in relation to the health of these athletes. In this regard, I will argue not only that boxing is
deleterious to the health of young athletes but also that these athletes might not possess the level of autonomy
required to allow them to practice a sport with such an inherent risk of serious, and even irreparable, harm. A
second line of argument will focus on the central purpose of boxing and its relation to Olympism and its values.
This will allow to me argue that boxing is a violent-prone sport incoherent with Olympic values. In the end, the
educational aspiration of the YOG can be accomplished more effectively through other sports better aligned with
the values of Olympism.
References:
Douglas W. McLaughlin and Cesar R. Torres, “More than Games. Olympism as a Moral Approach to Sport,” in The
Olympics and Philosophy, eds., Heather L. Reid and Michael W. Austin (Lexington, KY: The University Press of
Kentucky, 2012), 101-116.
Nicholas Dixon, “Boxing, Paternalism and Legal Moralism,” Social Theory and Practice 27 (2001): 323-345.
Paul Davis, “Ethical Issues in Boxing,” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 20/21 (1993/1994): 48-63.
Professional and Contact Information
Cesar R. Torres
Professor
Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
[email protected]
Stephen Wade, “No kidding: Teens to get Youth Olympic Games,” USA Today, April 25, 2010, http://w ww.us
atoday.com/sports/olympics/2007-04-25-2774646336_x.htm (accessed November 1, 2010).
3 International Olympic Committee, Youth and Olympism. Olympic Studies Centre Content Package (Lausanne: International Olympic
Committee, 2010), 5.
4 See International Olympic Committee, “IOC Executive Board Welcomes Idea of Youth Olympic Games,” April 26, 2007,
http://www.olympic.org/content/news/media-resources/manual-news/1999-200 9/2007/04/26/ioc-executive-board-welcomes-idea-ofyouth-olympic-games/ (accessed November 1, 2010).
2
42
Charlene Weaving
Title: A girl on the beach as the cure for nothingness”: Examining 50 years of ‘beautiful’ in Sports
Illustrated Swimsuit Issue
Key Words: Sexualization, Sports Illustrated, female athletes
Abstract:
This year marks the 50th Anniversary of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue (SISI). In 1964, in order to
fill the void in sport news in between football bowl games and baseball spring training coverage, the
first official swimsuit issue featuring ‘bathing beauties’ was created. To commemorate this special
anniversary, a hard cover coffee table book was published and the American television network NBC
aired a two-hour special celebrating the SISI franchise, describing it as the “one of the most hotly
anticipated annual fixtures in American pop culture.”
Numerous female athletes have appeared as models in SISI such as Danica Patrick, Lindsey Vonn, the
Williams sisters and Amanda Beard. Using a content analysis approach, I will argue that celebrating
the 50th Anniversary of SISI is problematic for the continued struggle for women in sport, especially
given the prominence of sexual objectification. Specifically, I have developed five arguments that
demonstrate the problematic features of SISI. I attempt to provide the first sport philosophical analysis
of SISI and build on the work of sport sociologist Laurel R. Davis who, in 1997, published “The
Swimsuit Issue and Sport: Hegemonic Masculinity in Sports Illustrated.” Davis’s research received
many accolades and is revered in the sport sociology domain.
The SISI has evolved over the years from a bathing suit fashion spread to a contemporary multimedia
colossal. For example, to help celebrate the 50th anniversary, SISI teamed up with Mattel and features
Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Barbie in the February 2014 issue, and a special collector’s item Barbie doll
was produced and sold exclusively at Target. The theme of the campaign is “Unapologetic”. Mattel
indicates, “As a legend herself, and under constant criticism about her body and how she looks, posing
in the issue gives Barbie and her fellow legends an opportunity to own who they are, celebrate what
they have done and be #unapologetic.” This partnership as well as the theme ‘unapologetic’ will also
be included in the analysis of the problematic features of the SISI. Theories of sexual objectification will
be applied based on the work of feminist scholars Sandra Bartky, Martha Nussbaum, Mary Jo Kane, and
Iris Marion Young.
References:
Davis, Paul (2001). ‘Sexualization and Sexuality in Sport.’ Ethics in Sport. Morgan, W.J, Meier, K and
Schneider A. J, Eds. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics, pp. 285-292.
Nussbaum, Martha (1999). Sex and Social Justice. New York: Oxford University Press
Young, I.M. (2005). On female body experience: Throwing like a girl and other essays.New York: Oxford
University Press.
Professional and Contact Information
Charlene Weaving
Associate Professor
Human Kinetics Dept. St. Francis Xavier University.
[email protected]
43
Junko Yamaguchi
Title: Enhancing the cultural identity through the body-self unity in the Native American Canoe
Journey Project
Keywords: global society, performance, spirituality, invented tradition
Abstract:
My central concern is how the individual spiritual body-self experience
transforms the collective cultural identity and to see how the traditional culture is invented to the
new style of tradition in a global society.
There is an intriguing Native American, Inter Tribal Canoe Journey Project on the West Coast
of Washington State, which has about a 20 year-long history. On the West Coast, the Puget Sound
[Salish Sea], and some of the British Columbia Nations, each tribe sets out on a Journey over three
weeks; setting off with the tides and on a planned schedule. Over one hundred canoes with
approximately one thousand pullers come from all over the coast and rivers paddle to the final host
tribal Nations.
The Canoe Journey Project among the inter tribes resembles the Dragon Boat Race in Southern
Asia as well as in the East. In Asia competition holds the symbolic myth that the Dragon is a powerful
spirit of water under an everyday religious Buddhist belief, and seeks blessings for a season blessed
with an abundant harvest in the rice-producing district. In the Canoe Journey, on the contrary, there is
no competitive match against a particular team, at this event. We see a kind of “invention of tradition”,
in that tribal people promote ancestor respect to foster the Native Youth Leadership Program and
enhance the Tribal Nation Identity as they connect the wisdom of the elders with the
dreams of the younger generations. It is called the Healing Canoe Journey, and it is run with no drugs,
alcohol, and no violence; some tribes even forbid suicide (which is very prevalent in Indian Nations).
Nowadays the Nations’ Identities are accelerating in the West Coast of Washington State in that
the project has been highly important part for their spiritual expression in their active lifestyles year
by year since 1989, as we see there are thousands of spectators. The areas of Puget Sound of the State
of Washington are more advanced globally, together with the internet-society.
This raises the question of whether the canoe Journey Project is an “invented tradition” through
the spiritual experience for the Nations’ Identities.
Reference:
1. Metheny, E. (1968.1979). The Symbolic Power of Sport, Sport and the Body: A Philosophical
Symposium,
Lea & Febiger.
2. King, C. R. (Ed.). (2008) . Native Americans and Sport in North America : Other People's Games,
London and New York: Routledge.
Professional and Contact Information
Junko Yamaguchi, Prof. Dr.
Tsuda College, Japan
[email protected]
44
Yang Zhang and Li Guisen
Title: Positive Influences of Olympic Humanistic Ideas on the Development of Chinese Society
Key words: Olympism, Confucianism, harmonious ideas, harmonious society
Abstract:
Different from normal sport games, the Olympic Games is a kind of social activity aiming to realize
some ideal under the guidance of certain philosophy which is the Olympism. By studying and analyzing
a large number of related materials and literatures, as well as the employment of questionnaires, this
paper conducted an inductive analysis of the Olympic humanistic ideas and their promotion in the
establishment of harmonious society in China. The essences of the Olympic humanistic ideas lie in the
respect for humanity and in the philosophical thinking about life, which are mainly reflected in
Olympism. It tries to facilitate human’s harmonious development through the combination and
integration of sports and education so as to build a harmonious society that respects and protects
dignity. As the essence of the Confucianism in ancient China and the mainstream ideology of Chinese
traditional culture, harmony has profound influence on the country’s modern development. Both the
Olympic humanistic ideas and China’s harmonious society ideal are essences of human thoughts.
Although generated from different origins, they have many similarities in promoting the development
of harmonious society. The successful holding of 2008 Beijing Olympic Games has integrated and
interacted the two thoughts with each other that on one hand, the Olympics’ development in China has
promoted its internationalization and diversification; on the other hand and more importantly, the
Olympic humanistic ideas have enriched the ideology of harmonious society, and provided a new
approach to realize it.
References
International Olympic Committee. “Olympic Charter”.
<http://www.olympic.org/documents/olympic_charter_en.pdf>.
Segrave, Jeffrey. Olympism. Illinois: Human Kinetics, 1981.
The Analects of Confucius. Annotated by Zhang Yanying. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2006.
Professional and Contact Information
Zhang Yang
Lecturer
Capital Institute of Physical Education
[email protected]
Li Guisen
Lecturer
China Youth University for Political Sciences
[email protected]
45
Ana Zimmerman and Soraia Chung Saura
Title: Body, environment and adventure: beyond adrenaline
Key words: adventure, perception, human movement, experience, embodiment.
Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to investigate human spatiality, and perception in general, with
the experience of adventure sports as background. These activities especially highlight our strong
relationship with the world considering the specific way the environment participates in their
development. It is the presence of instability and risk that makes them what they are. More than a
different range of corporeal techniques, adventure sports can teach us a way of interrogating and
looking at the world. They require a peculiar sensibility that allows our body to experience the
environment by silencing knowledge in favour of a corporeal wisdom. The word “adrenaline”,
metaphors, or interjections are frequently used by adventurers to summarize their experiences
indicating a corporeal engagement that is better described than explained.
This paper explores the notions of perception, experience and spatiality, considering mainly
the phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty and Bachelard and some counterpoints on Deleuze’s aesthetic.
Alternative body practices indicate the possibility we have to build up different ways of inhabiting the
world.
References:
Bachelard, G. A Poética do Espaço. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2008.
Bachelard, G. A Poética do Devaneio. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1988.
Deleuze, G; Guattari, F. 1991. Qu'est-ce que la philosophie? Paris: Les éditions de minuit.
Merleau-Ponty, M. 2002. Phenomenology of perception. London: Routledge.
Merleau-Ponty, M. 1964. Signs. Northwestern University Press: Evanston, Illinois.
Merleau-Ponty, M. 1974. The prose of the world. London: Heinemann Educational.
Professional and Contact Information
Ana Zimmermann
Assistant Professor
School of Physical Education and Sport
University of São Paulo
Brazil
[email protected]
Soraia Chung Saura –
Assistant Professor
School of Physical Education and Sport
University of São Paulo
Brazil
[email protected]
46
ABSTRACTS IN PORTUGUESE & SPANISH
RESUMOS EM PORTUGUES & ESPAÑOL
Asociación Latina de
Filosofía del Deporte
Associação Latina de
Filosofia do Desporto
47
Carlos Alberto de Andrade Coelho Filho
Título: O malhar como metáfora da exercitação física
Palavras-chave: exercício físico, malhar, filosofia da linguagem
Resumo:
No Brasil, a palavra malhar passa a ser utilizada como metáfora da exercitação física, e ganha
força simultaneamente aos programas televisivos (novelas e humorísticos) e às canções que passam a
utilizá-la como tema, com grande sucesso. Em 1983, por exemplo, o compositor Marcos Valle gravou o
LP “Marcos Valle”, contendo canções de sua autoria, dentre as quais “Estrelar” (cujo single vendeu
cerca de 90 mil cópias, quase alcançando um Disco de Ouro), que diz em um trecho: “Tem que correr,
tem que suar, tem que malhar...”. Considere-se aqui, obviamente, o status midiático, ou o poder de
persuasão midiático, e sua relação com a linguagem. Nesse sentido, importa notar que a metáfora tem
sua historicidade; delineia-se em um campo enunciativo onde adquire lugar e status, que lhe apresenta
relações com o passado e lhe descortina um futuro eventual. Como diz Ricoeur, a metáfora é sempre
portadora de uma significação emergente conferida por alguns contextos específicos, e pode ser
considerada uma criação linguística, ou, mais precisamente, uma inovação semântica. Contudo, se ela
passa a ser adotada por uma parte importante da comunidade linguística, pode, por sua vez, tornar-se
uma significação usual e juntar-se à polissemia das entidades lexicais, código ou sistema. Nesse último
estágio, quando o efeito de sentido a que chamamos metáfora alcançar a mudança de sentido que
aumenta a polissemia, nos termos de Ricoeur, a metáfora deixará de ser metáfora viva e passará a ser
metáfora morta. Com efeito, duas constatações associadas à palavra malhar merecem destaque: (1)
etimologicamente, ela tem em si a ideia de mancha (mácula), de bater, contundir e dar pancada, de
castigar o corpo, de zombar e escarnecer; (2) o significado “fazer ginástica ou exercício físico para
fortalecer os músculos e manter a linha” só passa a figurar em dicionários conceituais (enciclopédicos)
a partir do final dos anos 1990. Portanto, ainda que o corpo que “malha” possa remeter para a imagem
de um corpo dotado de supervitalidade, ou o ato de “malhar” representar um meio de resistência às
diferentes formas de decadência física, a apropriação social da palavra malhar para caracterizar a
prática do exercício físico parece também não escapar ao sentido de castigar o corpo, isto é, o de
violência contra uma matéria que deve ser moldada a golpes. Apontamos, então, para um movimento
que parece fornecer subsídios para a reflexão vinculada, por exemplo, à diminuição preocupante do
nível de atividade física da população. Nesse diapasão, tendo por base o pensamento de Ricoeur, nossa
questão se coloca para o campo da Filosofia do Esporte: uma atividade de análise e reflexão sobre a
utilização da palavra malhar como metáfora da exercitação física pode contribuir para uma melhor
compreensão dessa prática e/ou do fazer corporal esportivo?
Referências:
Coelho Filho C A A (2007). Metamorfose de um corpo “andarilho”: busca e reencontro do “algo”
melhor. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
Gregolin M R V (2004). O enunciado e o arquivo: Foucault (entre)vistas. In: Foucault e os domínios da
linguagem: discurso, poder, subjetividade. Vanice Sargentini, Pedro Navarro-Barbosa (Orgs.). São
Carlos: Claraluz, 23-96.
Ricoeur P (2011). Escritos e conferências 2: hermenêutica. São Paulo: Loyola.
Malhar (2014). [Brasil, Informal] Fazer ginástica ou exercício físico para fortalecer os músculos e
manter a linha. In: Dicionário Priberam da Língua Portuguesa. Recuperado em 25 de março, 2014, de
http://www.priberam.pt/dlpo/malhar
Teixeira F L S, Caminha I O (2010). A supervitalidade como forma de poder: um olhar a partir das
academias de ginástica. Revista Movimento, 16 (03): 203-220.
48
Santos S F, Salles A D (2009). Antropologia de uma academia de musculação: um olhar sobre o corpo e
um espaço de representação social. Revista Brasileira de Educação Física e Esporte, 23 (02): 87-102.
Hansen R, Vaz A F (2004). Treino, culto e embelezamento do corpo: um estudo em academias de
ginástica e musculação. Revista Brasileira de Ciências do Esporte, 26 (01): 135-152.
Organización Panamericana de la Salud (2006). Impulso panamericano en favor de una dieta saludable
y actividad física. Recuperado em 31 de janeiro, 2012, de
http://www.paho.org/Spanish/DD/PIN/ps060228.htm#Top
Ricoeur P (1975). La métaphore vive. Paris: Le Seuil, 1975.
Instituição
Carlos Alberto de Andrade Coelho Filho
Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora
[email protected]
49
Marco Antonio Oliveira de Azevedo
Título: Novamente, sobre jogos e paradoxos
Palavras-chave: conceito de jogo, paradoxos, Bernard Suits, grasshopper, Aurel Kolnai
Resumo:
Um dos debates mais interessantes sobre a natureza do jogo foi encenado pelos filósofos Aurel
Kolnai e Bernard Suits. Num artigo intitulado "Games and Aims", de 1965, e publicado no volume 66 da
Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Kolnai sustentou que jogos competitivos são empreendimentos
essencialmente paradoxais. Jogos, entendidos como atividades competitivas promovidas em mútuo
acordo sob os limites estabelecidos por um conjunto definido de regras e um contrato explícito,
exibiriam o seguinte paradoxo interno: a fim de que o jogo aconteça, os jogadores precisam concordar
amigavelmente em agir como parceiros, para, logo a seguir, esforçarem-se para derrotar um ao outro.
Em outras palavra, os parceiros agem como antagonistas; mas ambos precisam almejar o objetivo
mútuo de jogar o jogo. Juntos colaboram para que, separadamente, cada um tenta vencer o outro; mas
isso também implica esforçar-se para que o outro não alcance o objetivo de vencer o jogo. Bernard
Suits reagiu a isso dando ao personagem principal de seu The Grasshopper a tarefa de encaminhar uma
resposta adequada (Suits, 1978, p. 74-81). Se jogos competitivos forem empreendimentos paradoxais,
então eles seriam presumivelmente indefiníveis—o que representaria um golpe fatal ao objetivo de
Suits de mostrar que é possível dar uma definição de "jogo" de forma completamente satisfatória. Suits
esforça-se para demonstrar que jogos não envolvem paradoxos. Cooperar para jogar e desejar vencer
não podem e não são objetivos contraditórios. Mas ao mesmo tempo em que recusa a ideia de que, em
competições, os jogadores poderiam assumir uma postura volitiva exótica (a atitude que consistiria em
atuar com objetivos contraditórios), Suits sugere algumas situações que fariam de jogos competitivos
empreendimentos problemáticos. Tais situações envolveriam os seguintes paradoxos: o paradoxo do
vitorioso relutante, o paradoxo da benignidade infinita, o paradoxo do vencedor compulsivo e o
paradoxo do jogador procrastinador. Após apresentar essas situações, Suits sugere que o que
caracteriza um jogo é justamente o fato de tratar-se de um empreendimento que evita esses
paradoxos. "Jogos", diz Suits, "são o tipo de coisa na qual há a possibilidade, de fato, o perigo, de que
esse paradoxo ocorra" (Suits, 1978, p. 79); e um bom jogo seria justamente o tipo de atividade que
evitaria o "paradoxo". Meu objetivo nesta comunicação é duplo. Primeiro, pretendo retomar o debate,
buscando tornar clara a divergência original entre Kolnai e Suits. Segundo, pretendo explorar uma
ideia proposta por Suits, a saber, de que jogos são empreendimentos artificiais cujos objetivos
"autotélicos" (seguindo o jargão de Kolnai) somente conduzem a situações paradoxais caso seus
jogadores evitem (ou não se disponham voluntariamente a) alcançá-los. Evitar o paradoxo também
parece explicar por que práticas como o doping (entre outras práticas) são rejeitadas em uma
competição justa. Ao final, pretendo retomar os argumentos em defesa de que a passagem do jogo ao
esporte envolve a solução a um problema que surge no instante em que competições são levadas a
sério pelos jogadores. Jogos não poderiam ser empreendimentos sérios, a menos que se
institucionalizem como práticas sociais estáveis.
Instituição
Marco Antonio Oliveira de Azevedo
Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos
[email protected]
50
Jorge Olímpio Bento y Helena Cristina Baguinho Bento
Título: Desporto e valores: uma aliança natural carecida de renovação
Resumo:
Uma viagem às fontes matriciais do desporto (‘arété’, cultura e paideia gregas) e às luzes da sua
renovação (Modernidade, Humanismo e Iluminismo) revela-nos que ele nasceu e cresceu de uma
aliança natural com fins, normativos, princípios, referenciais e símbolos axiológicos, éticos e estéticos.
Nesta conformidade à elaboração deste texto presidem os seguintes objetivos:
•
‘Recordar’ e revisitar a matriz ‘artística’ do desporto.
•
Apelar à urgência de remissão discursiva e prática do ideário desportivo.
•
Advertir para desvios e perigos da mentalidade fabricadora e utilitária, de uma
racionalidade científica, sem abertura para inquietudes éticas.
•
Acordar a necessidade de renovar os olhares filosóficos e pedagógicos sobre o
desporto.
•
Desatar as energias interiores de cada um e fazer sonhar com novos céus e nova terra.
O foco principal desta reflexão visa chamar a atenção para o facto de que o desporto (como
espetáculo, nomeadamente o futebol) está a esquecer a sua idiossincrasia, a ser capturado pelo
pragmatismo e utilitarismo, pelos tentáculos do polvo do mercado e pela ‘civilização do espetáculo’,
correndo o risco de se afastar do estádio grego e abeirar do circo romano, de se divorciar da arété e
paideia gregas, da cultura humanista e iluminista.
O mesmo se passa na educação, inclusive na universidade, bem como no contexto sóciocultural. Por isso o olhar sobre o desporto implica um olhar sobre a conjuntura e reprova a indiferença
face ao que nela acontece.
Perante este inquietante panorama impõe-se cumprir a obrigação de resistir e sobreviver,
deitando mãos ao arrimo da filosofia.
Instituição
Jorge Olímpio Bento
Universidade do Porto
[email protected]
Helena Cristina Baguinho Bento
Universidade do Porto
51
Daniel G. Campos
Título: Sentimentalismo filosófico y afición al fútbol latinoamericano
Palavras-chave: ética, deporte, razón, sentimiento
Resumo:
En El fútbol a sol y sombra, Eduardo Galeano dice no ser más “que un mendigo del buen fútbol.
Voy por el mundo sombrero en mano, y en los estadios suplico: —Una linda jugadita, por amor de Dios.
Y cuando el buen fútbol ocurre, agradezco el milagro sin que me importe un rábano cuál es el club o el
país que me lo ofrece” (2002, p. 1). El autor de la presente ponencia, sin embargo, confiesa que en la
Copa del Mundo FIFA sí le importa cuál país le ofrece sus triunfos. Siempre apoya a los equipos
latinoamericanos. De hecho, apoya al archirrival latinoamericano de su propio país contra selecciones
de cualquier otra región, y prefiere que gane, aunque el otro equipo juegue “mejor” o “más bonito”. No
se trata de un regionalismo similar al nacionalismo patriótico defendido por Dixon (2000), sino más
bien de un sentimiento de solidaridad con sociedades con las que siente afinidad.
En términos normativos, la declaración de Galeano podría sugerir un ideal lógico-estético al
que el buen aficionado al fútbol debería aspirar. Se debería apoyar al “mejor” fútbol en el sentido de la
actuación deportiva que mejor resuelva, con base en habilidades cultivadas y tácticas lícitas, los
problemas específicos que plantea el fútbol. Además, se debería apoyar al fútbol estéticamente más
bello, de acuerdo con ideales de belleza defendibles. Sin embargo, este ideal nos pide que ignoremos
nuestros sentimientos en pos de ideales teóricos.
En esta presentación, por el contrario, se intentará defender un sentimentalismo razonable con
base en la filosofía de Charles Peirce. Según Peirce, el “sentimentalismo” es la doctrina filosófica de que
debemos otorgar profundo respeto a los juicios naturales del corazón sensible (1893). Además, Peirce
argumenta que mientras en asuntos teóricos debe regir el razonamiento lógico, aunque ayudado por el
sentimiento instintivo para conjeturar, en asuntos prácticos de importancia vital debe regir el
sentimiento aunque criticado por la razón reflexiva (1898). Por “sentimiento” no se entiende
sensación ni emoción momentánea sino un hábito—disposición para la acción—de fuerte carga
afectiva que sirve para guiar las acciones vitales. Por ende, el “sentimentalismo” no es un “emotivismo”
como el criticado por Mumford (2012). Para Peirce, la sabiduría que conduce al buen vivir consiste en
distinguir cuando debe primar la razón asistida por el sentimiento en asuntos teóricos y cuando debe
primar el sentimiento asistido por la razón en asuntos de importancia vital. Tal sabiduría no incurre en
dicotomías, sino que busca dar el énfasis correcto en los continuos teoría-práctica, razón-sentimiento.
Se argumentará que la afición al fútbol es un asunto de importancia vital, por involucrar
vínculos afectivos, relaciones con personas, lugares y comunidades, y fines relacionados al buen vivir.
En tales asuntos, sentimientos morales—e.g. hábitos de cooperación, mutuo apoyo y celebración
compartida—deben guiar nuestras acciones. Éstos sugieren que es razonablemente sensible
solidarizarnos, a través de la práctica del fútbol, con aquellos que nos son más afines socioculturalmente. Sin embargo, esta disposición afectiva no debe llevarnos a la animosidad contra
miembros de otros grupos sociales, culturales, y demás, violando la disposición hacia la solidaridad e
inclusión. Para prevenir tales actitudes, la reflexión crítica y una orientación hacia la “sim-patía” (“el
sentir junto con otros”) inclusiva deben controlar a los sentimientos de solidaridad socio-cultural para
que no viren anti-páticos hacia los demás.
`En términos concretos de afición al fútbol, mi hipótesis es que el sentimiento de solidaridad sociocultural puede ser razonable—mesurado, capaz de reconocer superioridad del rival sin identificarse ni
alegrarse por él, y demás. Sin embargo, cuando este tipo de solidaridad se olvida de la sim-patía
inclusiva, puede llevar al insulto, la agresión, e incluso el odio. Se requieren entonces la crítica
52
razonable y la revitalización sim-pática. Pero no hay porqué obligarse, por razones abstractas de una
teoría del deporte, a apoyar el “mejor” fútbol o el “más bello”, lo juegue quien lo juegue.
Referências:
Dixon, Nicholas. 2000. “A Justification of Moderate Patriotism in Sport.” En Values in Sport: Elitism,
Nationalism, Gender Equality, and the Scientific Manufacturing of Winners. Eds. T. Tannsjo and C.
Tamburrini. New York: E&FN Spon.
Mumford, Stephen. 2012. Watching Sport: Aesthetics, Ethics and Emotion. New York: Routledge.
Galeano, Eduardo. 2002. El fútbol a sol y sombra. Montevideo: Ediciones del Chanchito.
Peirce, Charles S. (1893) 1992. “Evolutionary Love.” En The Essential Peirce, Vol. 1. Indianapolis:
Indiana University Press.
Peirce, Charles S. (1898) 1992. “Philosophy and the Conduct of Life”. En Reasoning and the Logic of
Things. Ed. K.L. Ketner. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Instituição
Daniel G. Campos
Brooklyn College – City University of New York
[email protected]
53
Rebeca Cardozo Coelho, Lev Kreft y Teresa Lacerda
Título: A experiência estética do atleta da seleção portuguesa de taekwondo
Palavras-chave: experiência estética, atleta, taekwondo, poomsae, combate
Resumo:
Conhecimento com um vasto potencial ainda por explorar, a estética do desporto e, mais
especificamente, a estética dos desportos de combate, como o Taekwondo, desperta um interesse cada
vez maior no domínio das ciências do desporto. O presente estudo, uma tese de doutoramento, buscou
a compreensão da experiência estética vivenciada por atletas séniores da Seleção Portuguesa de
Taekwondo, na prática da poomsae e do combate. Partiu-se da literatura sobre estética geral, sobre
estética do desporto e sobre Taekwondo, da consideração das peculiaridades do objeto e da
experiência pessoal. A experiência estética é mais magnificente do que uma experiência simplesmente
(Lacerda, 2004), caracteriza-se pelo conteúdo do fenómeno da cognição que se apresenta na nossa
perceção, assim como pelo valor desta experiência, que é singular (Matravers, 2003; Huisman, 2008;
Kant, 2010). Estas experiências podem ser valiosas de diversas maneiras para aqueles que as
vivenciam (Iseminger, 2003), e não existem apenas na sensibilidade do indivíduo, residem também na
imaginação (Schiller, 1991; Kant, 2010), pelo que o atleta pode saborear o gozo das qualidades
estéticas que consegue criar na prática desportiva. A literatura evidenciou que no Taekwondo a
tranquila beleza das suas formas e movimentos manifesta-se tanto na realização das ações que
configuram a performance, quanto no controlo das emoções que fluem (Il-hyeok, 2000). O Taekwondo
apresentou-se também como sendo um jogo, no qual coexiste o prazer de vencer o adversário real ou
imaginado, de obter uma vitória durante um combate árduo. O atleta, em alguns momentos, demonstra
ser um indivíduo destemido e audaz, capaz de se realizar também pelo risco implicado no jogo. Para
que se pudesse aceder de modo aprofundado ao ponto de vista dos atletas, e com o propósito de
descrever e interpretar a experiência estética por eles vivenciada, realizaram-se entrevistas. Deste
modo, a pesquisa, de natureza qualitativa com uma abordagem fenomenológica, assumiu um carácter
descritivo e exploratório. O discurso de 22 atletas foi captado em entrevistas semiestruturadas e a
informação recolhida foi tratada por meio da análise de conteúdo. Relativamente aos atletas de
poomsae foi manifesto que os elementos técnica, tática/jogo, afetividade/gosto, agressividade,
transcendência/superação e kihap (grito), são significativos para a compreensão da experiência
estética destes indivíduos. Já em relação aos atletas de combate foi possível perceber que os elementos
técnica, tática/jogo, afetividade/gosto, agressividade, risco, superação, vitória e kihap (grito), se
apresentaram como os mais significativos para o entendimento da experiência estética neste contexto.
Esses elementos compõem a prática e se transformam em momentos expressivos, fontes de prazer. A
análise e a interpretação dessas informações, permitiu concluir, portanto, que o atleta de Taekwondo, a
partir da busca pela execução de forma perfeita das técnicas e da tática, com o apoio constante dos
seus companheiros, adotando uma postura agressiva/assertiva, ultrapassando situações arriscadas, e
em alguns momentos com a exteriorização da sua energia interior através do kihap, superando limites,
vencendo, é capaz de aceder a experiências harmoniosas, belas, lúdicas, afetivas, isto é, experiências
estéticas.
Referências:
Huisman, D. (2008). A estética. Lisboa: Edições 70.
Il-hyeok, L. (2000). Taekwondo's Philosophy and Aesthetics. Koreana, Seoul 14(4), 8-15.
Iseminger, G. (2003). Aesthetic Experience. In Levinson, J. (2003). The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics.
Oxford: University Press, 99-116.
54
Kant, I. (2010). Crítica da Faculdade do Juízo. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária.
Kreft, L. (2012). Sport as a drama. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, Champaing, 39(2), 219-234.
Lacerda, T. de O. (2004). Acerca da natureza da experiência estética desencadeada pelo encontro com
o Desporto e do seu contributo para a educação estética do ser humano. In Lebre, E. & Bento, J. (Ed.).
Professor de Educação Física: ofícios da profissão. Porto: FCDEF-UP, 301-307.
Matravers, D. (2003). The aesthetic experience. British Journal of Aesthetics, 43(2), 158-174.
Schiller, F. (1991). Cartas sobre a educação estética da humanidade. São Paulo: EPU.
Instituição
Rebeca Cardozo Coelho
Universidade do Porto
[email protected]
Lev Kreft
University of Ljubljana
[email protected]
Teresa Lacerda
Universidade do Porto
[email protected]
55
Eduardo Klein Carmona, Alberto de Oliveira Monteiro y Janice Zarpellon Mazo
Título: Esporte paralímpico: uma reflexão acerca dos valores
Palavras-chave: axiologia, valores, Olimpismo, movimento Paralímpico
Resumo:
O esporte é uma forma de linguagem universal produzida e reproduzida por, praticamente,
todos os povos, grupos, etnias e/ou culturas do planeta, e que, ao mesmo tempo, é capaz de manifestar
diversos valores sociais e humanos. Valor pode ser entendido como uma espécie de crença consensual
coletiva de duração estável que oferece ou dá sentido e significado às relações sociais e culturais. Cabe
ressaltar que os valores são uma experiência inevitável, tendo sua forma de materialização e expressão
através comportamentos, como em atitudes e em gestos. Na filosofia, os valores são estudados por
uma vertente denominada axiologia. Já nas ciências do esporte e da educação física, temos o olimpismo
enquanto uma espécie filosofia que enaltece as qualidades do corpo, espírito e mente através do
esporte, associado a valores educacionais e éticos universais. Desta forma, aportados pela axiologia (o
estudo dos valores) e pela filosofia do olimpismo, buscamos trazer uma reflexão acerca dos valores
escolhidos pelo International Paralympic Committee (IPC) para representar o movimento paralímpico
e os Jogos Paralímpicos, os quais são: a determinação, a coragem, a inspiração e a igualdade. Cabe
mencionar que esses valores se diferem dos valores olímpicos: excelência, respeito e amizade. Os
valores estabelecidos pelos IPC foram significados de modo particular para o movimento paralímpico,
sendo: a determinação para superar obstáculos e vencer a adversidade; a coragem para realizar o
inesperado, para além das expectativas; a inspiração para entusiasmar e proporcionar intensa afeição
pessoal; além da igualdade enquanto um mecanismo para o esporte paralímpico atuar como um agente
de mudança atitudinal no combate da discriminação em relação às pessoas com deficiência. Os valores
paralímpicos buscam representar as potencialidades das pessoas com deficiência, como, também,
sensibilizar as pessoas sem deficiência para com essas outras pessoas, não através de um olhar de
piedade, mas, sim, de respeito e admiração.
Instituição
Eduardo Klein Carmona
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
Alberto de Oliveira Monteiro
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Janice Zarpellon Mazo
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
56
Michelle Carreirão Gonçalves y Alexandre Fernandez Vaz
Título: Esporte e estética: Representações da forma de jogo no rúgbi feminino
Palavras-chave: esporte, estética, técnica, mimese, rúgbi
Resumo:
O presente trabalho se propõe a debater relações entre estética e esporte, analisando o
fenômeno esportivo como um dos que mais proporciona elevado prazer e beleza no contemporâneo.
Perguntamos pelas representações estéticas do esporte, deslocando o olhar dos espectadores para os
praticantes, numa tentativa de mais bem entender a questão por um ângulo distinto daquele
comumente encontrado na literatura, em que é analisada a partir da recepção. Para tanto, tomamos
como fonte para pesquisa uma equipe de rúgbi feminina da cidade de Florianópolis/SC (Brasil),
escolha feita de forma um tanto exploratória, considerando que pouco ainda se conhece da modalidade
no Brasil, tanto por espectadores, quanto por acadêmicos. Foi realizado um conjunto de observações
do cotidiano do time, bem como 4 entrevistas semiestruturadas com jogadoras que compõem o grupo,
escolhidas por fazerem também parte do selecionado nacional. Somado a esse material, tem-se
observações-piloto junto a um clube de rúgbi da cidade de La Plata/Argentina, além de material
coletado durante evento da Confederação Brasileira de Rugby em 2011, realizado em São Paulo, cujos
fins eram o selecionamento de jogadoras para a equipe nacional. No que concerne ao referencial
teórico que ofereceu embasamento à pesquisa, trabalhamos com autores como Wolfgang Welsch (com
seus argumentos que reivindicam o estatuto de arte ao esporte), Gunter Gebauer (sobre as relações
entre esporte e mimese), Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht (no que diz respeito ao lugar privilegiado do esporte
no âmbito da estética da presença) e José Miguel Wisnik (que toma o futebol como exemplo mais bem
acabado de desfrute estético no campo esportivo, pensando-o no diálogo com a literatura). Somado a
isso, buscamos também na Teoria Estética de Theodor W. Adorno conceitos que nos ajudaram a mais
bem compreender o fenômeno, como matéria, material e forma, além de indicações sobre as relações
entre mimese e técnica na construção da obra de arte. Os resultados indicam: 1) que os cuidados com o
corpo compõem o quadro de preocupações das praticantes dessa modalidade, na medida em que este
se coloca como matéria para a obra esportiva; 2) que os gestos técnicos da modalidade são
fundamentais para a produção de forma, constituindo-se como material da obra; 3) que a forma de
jogo preferida pelas jogadoras relaciona-se com aquilo que chamam de jogo aberto, que é veloz,
ofensivo e malandro; 4) que a criação da obra esportiva parece aproximar-se com a da obra de arte, na
medida em que ambas conjugam espírito e natureza, técnica e mimese, na elaboração do belo.
Referências:
ADORNO, T.W. Teoria Estética. Lisboa: Edições 70, 2008.
GEBAUER, G. Ästhetische Erfahrung der Praxis: das Mimetische im Sport. In: KÖNIG, E.; LUTZ, R.
(Orgs.). Bewegungskulturen: Ansätze zu einer kritischen Anthropologie des Körpers. Sankt Augustin:
Academia Verlag, 1995. p. 189 - 198.
GUMBRECHT, H.U. Elogio da beleza atlética. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007.
Instituição
Michelle Carreirão Gonçalves
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
[email protected]
Alexandre Fernandez Vaz
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
[email protected]
57
Alberto Carrio
Título: Especificidad del deporte y control del pasaporte biológico
Palavras-chave:
especificidad del deporte, tratado de Lisboa, pasaporte biológico, derechos
fundamentales
Resumo:
El Tratado de Lisboa ha reconocido la especificidad del deporte a partir de la consideración de
cinco funciones básicas de toda actividad deportiva, a saber: educación, salud pública, función social,
recreativa y cultural. Este reconocimiento supone un cambio importante en la política del deporte
europeo que posibilita un control creciente de las reglas de las competiciones y de la actividad de las
organizaciones deportivas.
En este artículo pretendo analizar i) la paradójica consecuencia del reconocimiento de la
especificidad del deporte por las instituciones europeas, y, ii) la dudosa utilidad este reconocimiento a
partir de la consideración conjunta de las funciones básicas y los valores fundamentales del deporte .
En relación con el primer apartado, no deja de resultar irónico que se haga descansar el
reconocimiento de especificidad del deporte en los valores fundamentales del deporte cuando sus
promotores probablemente perseguían lo contrario: la exención de la legislación europea a un
floreciente ámbito económico. Pero es el segundo apartado el que resulta más sorprendente dado que
puede terminar alcanzando justo el objetivo contrario al que inicialmente se perseguía. Es decir, con la
finalidad de preservar el Fair Play, como valor fundamental del deporte tal y como lo reconoce el
Tratado de Lisboa, las Federaciones deportivas someten a los atletas a controles antidopaje que
difícilmente pueden ser avalados por la Carta de Derechos europea debido a la lesión de ciertos
derechos fundamentales básicos. Se da así la paradoja de que el reconocimiento de la especificidad del
Deporte por el Tratado de la Unión termine por avalar la negativa de los deportistas a someterse a los
estrictos controles de dopaje a los que hasta ahora los sujetaba la WADA de acuerdo con las
respectivas federaciones deportivas.
Referências:
LOLAND, S., Fair Play in Sport. A moral norm System. London, Routledge, 2002.
Parrish, R, et al, The Lisbon Treaty and EU sports policy: study. Brussels, European Parliament.
Instituição
Alberto Carrio
Universitat Pompeu Fabra
[email protected]
58
Nilzalina Silva Chaparro, Mara Regina Rosa Ribeiro, Paulo Cunha e Silva y Teresa Lacerda
Título: Olhar sensível: afeto e solidariedade presentes no brincar da criança hospitalizada
Palavras-chave: olhar sensível, estética, brincar, criança hospitalizada
Resumo:
O trabalho ora apresentado constituiu resultado parcial da tese de doutorado intitulada “O
corpo doente pode ser estético? Estudo interpretativo a partir da dimensão da criança hospitalizada”
(Chaparro, 2013), sendo o mesmo guiado pelo olhar do lúdico e da estética. Nesse sentido, o brincar da
criança hospitalizada exigiu que se fizesse leitura de múltiplos sentimentos expressos e daí sua
aproximação com a ciência sensitiva de Baumgarten, que ruma em direção oposta à da logica,
articulando-se, antes, com a sensibilidade. A afetividade e a solidariedade foram algumas das
características mostradas no estudo. Os gestos afetivos revelados pelos profissionais estiveram ligados
a: respeito pela individualidade da criança, recepcionar as crianças com sorriso, elogiar suas ações,
mostrar-se alegre e bonita, abraços, beijos, uso de jaleco com motivos infantis e levar roupas das
bonecas para lavar em casa. A solidariedade se mostrou sob a forma de uma rede articulada para o
brincar acontecer: profissionais de enfermagem procuravam conciliar a administração da medicação
com o tempo de brincar, professoras criavam meios para a criança brincar na cama e decodificavam
símbolos expressos pelas crianças e ainda o “estar junto para brincar”. As características subjectivas
presentes no brincar, das quais se percebeu decorrer uma forte carga emotiva, constituíram, deste
modo, um dos indicadores da presença da estética no brincar da criança hospitalizada. De facto, ficou
explícito que a comoção desencadeada pelo brincar possuía traços da estética entendida por Maffesoli
(2005, p. 8) como “vibrar em comum, sentir em uníssono, experimentar coletivamente, tudo o que
permite a cada um, movido pelo ideal comunitário, sentir-se daqui e em casa neste mundo”. Na
realidade a força atrativa do brincar residia nessa vontade de fazer acontecer e “experimentar junto”,
daí que os profissionais e as crianças lançavam mão de mecanismos sensíveis, no caso a afetividade e a
solidariedade, para tornar a vontade comum real. Os gestos afetivos somados aos solidários serviram
de elementos estruturantes ao olhar sensível dos profissionais e crianças. A indissociabilidade desses
aspectos apresentados nos deu sustentação para denominá-los de olhar estético, na mesma
perspectiva de Pereira (2006, p. 290) que descreve esse olhar como um “olhar amoroso, uma atitude
da alma, o que implica uma atitude mais radical da consciência perante a facticidade, a capacidade de
poetizar, a capacidade de experienciar sentimentos, para nos dar a verdadeira realidade, a mais
profunda, a mais alta e a mais rica.”
Referências:
Chaparro, N. S. (2013). O CORPO DOENTE PODE SER ESTÉTICO? ESTUDO INTERPRETATIVO A PARTIR
DA DIMENSÃO LÚDICA EM CRIANÇAS HOSPITALIZADAS. Porto: N. S. Chaparro. Dissertação de
Doutoramento Apresentada à Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto.
Mafessoli. M. (2005). O mistério da conjunção (J. M. Silva trad.), Porto Alegre. Sulina.
Pereira, P. C. (2006). Do sentir e do pensar. Edições Afrontamento, Porto.
59
Instituição
Nilzalina Silva Chaparro
Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso
[email protected]
Mara Regina Rosa
Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso
[email protected]
Ribeiro, Paulo Cunha e Silva
Universidade do Porto
[email protected]
Teresa Lacerda
Universidade do Porto
[email protected]
60
Soraia Chung Saura y Ana Cristina Zimmermann
Título: O jogo e a festa, o tempo e o movimento
Palavras-chave: temporalidade, movimentar-se, celebração
Resumo:
O objetivo deste estudo é explorar a noção de temporalidade, considerando a experiência em
esportes, jogos e danças, examinando especialmente a presença da repetição versus novidade.
Movimentos expressivos, como jogos e danças, nos permitem reconhecer uma experiência que não é
necessariamente associada ao tempo cronológico, bem relatada por esportistas e dançarinos. O jogo, a
dança, o esporte de um modo geral nos mostram como elaboramos nossa temporalidade em função de
uma relação dialógica que se estabelece sobretudo a partir de nossa corporalidade. Atletas, quando em
campo, descrevem uma percepção de organicidade fortemente associados à experiência do tempo.
Também descrevem, em uma relação mais ampla com os eventos esportivos, a integração temporal
por meio da ritmidade cíclica. De qualquer maneira, todas as experiências de temporalidade apontam
para uma forma de habitar o tempo que exige o estabelecimento de uma relação e a elaboração de
novos sentidos e significados. O jogo, a dança, o esporte nos mostram como elaboramos nossa
temporalidade em função de uma relação dialógica e imagética. A experiência temporal revela um
saber elaborado no corpo, durante o movimento do jogo e na ocorrência dos festivais anuais. A noção
de temporalidade é trabalhada por Merleau-Ponty ao descrever a noção de tempo vivido associado a
nossa presença como um “ser no mundo”. Neste sentido, o tempo vivido é o espaço temporalizado que
permanece como um horizonte para nós. Gadamer, por sua vez, ao tratar da estrutura temporal da
festa, se detém na noção de “celebrar” como um modo específico de nossa conduta no qual também
não é possível identificar a presença de uma sequência de momentos. Trata-se do tempo vivenciado.
Reconhecer estas formas de elaboração de nossa temporalidade pode auxiliar a compreender nossa
absorção, participação e formas de antecipação, em certas experiências que respeitam a corporeidade
presente na elaboração da temporalidade humana.
Referências:
BACHELARD, G. A Poética do Espaço. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2008.
BACHELARD, G. A Poética do Devaneio. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1988.
GADAMER, H-G. A atualidade do belo: a arte como jogo símbolo e festa. Rio de Janeiro: Tempo
Brasileiro 1985.
GIL, J. Movimento total: o corpo e a dança. Lisboa: Relógio d‟água, 2001.
MERLEAU-PONTY, M. Fenomenologia da percepção. São Paulo: Martins Fontes,1994.
Instituição
Soraia Chung Saura
Universidade de São Paulo
[email protected]
Ana Zimmermann
Universidade de São Paulo
[email protected]
61
Anderson da Cunha Baía y Andrea Moreno
Título:
O papel do esporte no projeto formador das Associações Cristãs de Moços no Brasil
(1920-1929)
Palavras-chave: formação, esporte, história, Associação Cristã de Moços
Resumo:
Este estudo aborda o projeto de formação física da Associação Cristã de Moços (ACM) no Brasil,
especialmente no que tange a presença do esporte na formação dos associados. A ACM foi criada na
Inglaterra em 1844 e implantada no Brasil em 1893 por meio do norte-americano Myron Augusto
Clark, cumprindo uma missão da sede da instituição de Nova Iorque em ampliar seu campo de atuação
além das fronteiras dos Estados Unidos. Seu propósito nas diferentes regiões do mundo, segundo as
bases de Paris – documento norteador das ações da instituição – era promover o desenvolvimento do
caráter “cristão”, a “utilidade” dos seus membros e promover o “bem físico”, “intelectual”, “social” e
“espiritual” dos moços. A partir do entendimento da existência de um investimento na formação física
do associado, temos como propósito, nesse estudo, compreender o papel do esporte no projeto
formador da Associação Cristã de Moços, no período de 1920 a 1929. As fontes mobilizadas foram:
revista “Mocidade” e jornal “O Apóstolo”, jornal “O Puritano”; e documentos institucionais – panfletos,
cartilhas, estatutos e atas. No projeto da ACM, no Brasil, aliada à formação intelectual e moral-religiosa
estava o exercício físico – especialmente realizado por meio da ginástica e dos esportes. Havia um
investimento da instituição no país na constituição de um ethos esportivo, salientando a importância
das práticas esportivas na formação dos associados. Se, desde as origens das diferentes Associações
Cristãs de Moços no país estava explicita a preocupação com a promoção do “bem physico” do sócio, a
intensificação das ações do Departamento Físico somente foi percebida no início da década de 1920. O
esporte foi utilizado, nesse momento, para sustentar o discurso institucional da formação de um corpo
viril, forte (mas sem exageros de hipertrofia), saudável, eficiente, preparado para o trabalho, passível
de controlar as vontades, recatado e ainda formado a partir dos predicados morais que conduziam os
ensinamentos cristãos. Afinal, o corpo era também lugar da moral, da religião e do aprendizado. O
corpo deveria, portanto, ser tratado como tal. Uma alimentação adequada, as formas de comportar e
agir e as orientações de como deveria ser a atuação do esportista nos momentos de competições e póscompetição eram elementos que conduziam a uma “reforma dos costumes” nos hábitos corporais dos
brasileiros. Essas ideias integraram um debate que, em grande parte, foi incorporado ao discurso
acmista brasileiro por meio de um conjunto de textos escritos e traduzidos pelo missionário norteamericano que atuou em ACMs brasileiras, H. J. Sims. Esse missionário e outros sujeitos formados pela
ACM participaram do debate acerca da escolarização do esporte em várias regiões do país. Assim, ao
construir um projeto de formação física para os sócios, a Associação Cristã de Moços contribuiu na
conformação da Educação Física brasileira.
Referências:
LINHALES, Meily Assbú. A escola, o esporte e a ‘energização do caráter’: projetos culturais em
circulação na Associação Brasileira de Educação (1925-1935). 2006. 266f. Tese (Doutorado em
Educação). Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2006.
PARK, Roberta J. Science, Service, and the professionalization of Physical Education: 1885-1905. In:
The International Journal of the History of Sport. Vol.24, nº12, December 2007, 1674-1700.
SEVCENKO, Nicolau. A Capital Irradiante: técnica, ritmos e ritos do Rio. In:______. (Org). História da Vida
Privada no Brasil. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998, vol. 03.
62
Instituição
Anderson da Cunha Baía
Universidade Federal de Viçosa
[email protected]
Andrea Moreno
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
[email protected]
63
Carolina Fernandes da Silva, Alice Beatriz Assmann, Ester Liberato Pereira y Janice Zarpellon
Mazo
Título: Associativismo esportivo: decifranco seus sentidos
Resumo:
As associações esportivas são composições centradas em práticas esportivas; mas, os sentidos
atribuídos pelos homens a esta estrutura podem modificar-se ao longo do tempo, juntamente com as
transformações culturais. Tal interpretação é baseada em teorias do campo da História Cultural
(CHARTIER, 2000; BURKE, 2005; PESAVENTO, 2004), que procuram decifrar os sentidos conferidos ao
mundo por meio das representações que indivíduos e grupos constroem sobre a realidade. O termo
‘associativismo esportivo’ é formado por duas palavras que, juntas, agregam sentido uma à outra.
Como conceito geral, identificamos as associações esportivas como grupamentos voluntários, de duas
ou mais pessoas, que se identificam e que buscam a realização de um objetivo em comum ao praticar
uma atividade esportivizada, onde são construídas representações que dão sentido ao mundo
(BOUBON, 1990; LÜSCHEN; SAGE, 1981). A organização de associações foi uma estratégia adotada
pelos imigrantes no sentido de promover a integração e construir meios de identificação (BURKE,
2009; MAZO, 2003), ou seja, espaços onde se exerciam as identidades culturais. A identidade cultural é,
enquanto representação, uma construção imaginária de sentido, que produz coesão social e organiza
um sistema compreensivo a partir da ideia de pertencimento e de diferença, através de oposições
simbólicas (PESAVENTO, 2008; CUCHE, 1999). Muitas vezes, os próprios termos utilizados para se
denominar as associações esportivas fornecem representações que aprovisionam sentido à instituição.
Os sentidos das associações esportivas modificaram-se no processo de modernização das sociedades e
passaram de identificadores étnicos para distinguidores sociais. O esporte moderno institucionalizado
nas associações, a partir de 1870, constituiu-se em uma “tradição inventada” (HOBSBAWN, 1984, p. 9)
pelo Estado e pelos grupos sociais específicos como resposta às modificações sociais.
Referências:
BOUDON, R. Dicionário de Sociologia. Lisboa: Publicações Dom Quixote, 1990.
BURKE, P. O que é história cultural? Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar, 2005.
BURKE, P. O historiador como colunista. Editora: Civilização Brasileira, São Paulo, 2009.
CHARTIER, R. A História Cultural: entre práticas e representações. Editora DIFEL 82: Portugal, 2002.
CUCHE, Denys. A noção de cultura nas ciências sociais. Bauru, SP: EDUSC, 1999.
HOBSBAWN, E.; RANGER, T. (orgs.). A invenção das tradições. 2ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1984.
LÜSCHEN, G.; SAGE, G. (eds). Handbook of Social Science of Sport. Champign, Illinois: Stipes Publishng
Company, 1981.
MAZO, Janice. Emergência e a Expansão do Associativismo Desportivo em Porto Alegre (1867-1945):
espaço de representação da identidade cultural teuto-brasileira. Tese Doutorado. Faculdade de
Educação Física e Ciências do Desporto, Universidade do Porto, Portugal, 2003.
PESAVENTO, S. História & História Cultural. 2. ed. 2. reimp. – Belo Horizonte: Autênctica, 2008.
Instituição
Carolina Fernandes da Silva
Alice Beatriz Assmann
[email protected]
Ester Liberato Pereira
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Janice Zarpellon Mazo
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
64
Adroaldo Gaya
Título: O jogo de bola entre os espelhos
Resumo:
O ensaio trata da natureza do conhecimento nas Ciências do Esporte. Uma abordagem
epistemológica. O autor relata uma viagem ao interior do país. Descreve, através dos espelhos
retrovisores de seu carro, o jogo de bola de crianças numa várzea à beira da estrada. Propõe uma
metáfora. Serve de inspiração as imagens em distintas perspectivas observadas pelo espelho côncavo
(esquerdo) e convexo (direito) do carro. São duas imagens. Definem os físicos: imagem real em
espelhos côncavos, imagens virtuais nos convexos. Que imagem pretendem fisiologistas, biomecânicos,
psicólogos, sociólogos e pedagogos do esporte em seus espelhos refletir? Creio que independente do
espelho que detêm, cada um tem a pretensão de refletir a imagem real. São cegos às imagens refletidas
nos espelhos alheios. É assim. Se os nossos conhecimentos são interpretações do mundo que
traduzimos em discursos, como determinar quais discursos revelam imagens reais ou virtuais? Quais
os critérios que podem atribuir aos pesquisadores das várias áreas das Ciências do Esporte a
convicção de que seus discursos, cada um a seu modo, são reveladores da imagem real? Quem, entre
todos, possui o espelho mágico? Ou serão múltiplos os espelhos: da fisiologia, da biomecânica, da
psicologia, da pedagogia. Mas, também acredito que nenhum desses múltiplos discursos seja capaz de
revelar a complexidade do jogo de bola das crianças à beira da estrada. Não obstante, existe a
necessidade de exercitar a arte da mediação. Quanto maior é o uso de um único espelho, maior é a
possibilidade de que ele adquiria vida própria. E quando isso acontece, em vez do esporte se ver
refletido no espelho, é o espelho a pretender que o esporte se reflita nele. É hora do jogo de bola ser
jogado entre os espelhos.
Instituição
Adroaldo Gaya
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
65
Adroaldo Gaya, Vinícius Cardoso, Anelise Gaya y Carlê Ribas
Título: Talento esportivo: teoria e prática
Resumo:
Como ponto de partida reconhecemos que, embora muitas pessoas estejam capacitadas a
praticar alguma modalidade esportiva no seu tempo de lazer, poucas estão capacitadas para o alto
rendimento esportivo. Assim, quando se planejam políticas para o esporte de alto rendimento, incluise estratégias para a seleção dos futuros atletas de elite. Investir em pesquisas e programas capazes de
identificar e promover talentos esportivos com elevada eficiência é o que fazem os mais destacados
países da elite esportiva mundial. Entretanto, os modelos de identificação de talentos esportivos são
pouco eficientes. Devido a complexidade das relações entre os diversos indicadores de desempenho
esportivo, os modelos de intervenção não dão conta de prever com a desejada antecedência e a
necessária eficiência, quem serão, a médio e a longo prazo, os atletas de sucesso. Como tal, se
consideramos a reconhecida ineficiência dos modelos de identificação de talentos esportivos (as
práticas), ainda assim, devemos insistir em operar com definições (teorias), que embora possam ser
formalmente coerentes e consensuais, não apresentam validade empírica? Neste ensaio, procuramos
demonstrar que as definições de talento esportivo são abstrações teóricas, sem sentido prático e
validade operacional e, por suposto, sem validade científica. Como tal, devem ser abandonadas..
Instituição
Adroaldo Gaya
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
Vinícius Cardoso
Anelise Gaya
Carlê Ribas
66
Clézio Gonçalves
Título: Concepções sobre mente e corpo entre professores que atuam com modalidades esportivas
Palavras-chave: concepções, corpo/mente; filosofia da mente
Resumo:
É recorrente na educação física o discurso de se trabalhar com a aprendizagem do movimento
ou do gesto esportivo na perspectiva de integração da mente e corpo do aluno. Mas quando se
questiona, a respeito de que concepção epistemológica o docente está abordando, alguns problemas
começam a aparecer. O presente trabalho buscou identificar as concepções da relação Mente/Cérebro
e Corpo de professores que atuam com modalidades esportivas, em escolas da rede pública e/ou
privada. O trabalho caracteriza-se como uma investigação descritiva com análise qualitativa. Para
tanto foi utilizado um questionário composto por cinco questões fechadas e uma aberta, validado por
pesquisadores da área. Os professores atuam desde a Educação Infantil, Ensino Fundamental e do
Ensino Médio. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar as respostas dos professores e identificar nas atuais
teorias que discutem a relação Corpo/Mente em quais referências os sujeitos pesquisados se
encontram. Os resultados mostraram que os professores sabem dizer que existe uma relação
mente/cérebro, mas não conseguem identificar a abordagem epistemológica conceitual daí derivada.
Mais da metade dos professores desta pesquisa afirmam que corpo e mente são a mesma substância
situando-se, portanto, numa perspectiva Monista. Os demais dizem ser substâncias diferentes
defendendo uma perspectiva Dualista. Paradoxalmente aqueles que afirmam trabalhar o aluno nos
processos de aprendizagem numa perspectiva integral, e de forma global, representam quase a
totalidade dos entrevistados. Torna-se contraditória esta afirmativa deles. Por fim, verificou-se que os
professores falam sobre a relação Corpo/Mente sem terem uma referência teórica como base ou como
ponto de partida para iniciar uma discussão consistente sobre o assunto. Além disto, os atuais avanços
das neurociências e as reflexões da Filosofia da Mente não são vistos como elementos necessários de
aprofundamento nas relações de aprendizado em sala de aula.
Instituição
Clézio Gonçalves
[email protected]
67
Clézio Gonçalves
Título:
Corpo, Olimpíadas e esporte: Entre cyborgs, organismos e virtualidades... qual a
próxima fronteira?
Palavras-chave: corpo, corporeidade, Olímpiada, cyborgs
Resumo:
Este resumo é uma reflexão sobre que tipo de corpo participará das Olimpíadas nos anos
futuros. Muito já se escreveu sobre o nascimento das atuais Olimpíadas e sua evolução a medida que
novas modalidades foram incluídas em suas modalidades. O evento revelou-se um espaço único de
inclusão social ao implantarem os Jogos Paralímpicos, oportunizado a milhares de pessoas uma
oportunidade de encontro entre sujeitos com diferentes funcionalidades e nações num momento
singular de integração. Mas os atuais avanços da ciência em diferentes campos (Neurociência,
Inteligência Artificial, Computação quântica, Nanotecnologia, Biologia Sintética, etc) vem realizando
pesquisas que intervém na anatomia e nas condições funcionais desta estrutura corpo que já têm seu
design inalterado há milhares de anos. Hoje existem possibilidades regenerativas de segmentos
corporais que apontam caminhos futuros para amputados. Neste caso, um atleta paralímpico que
recupera seu membro competirá na modalidade ou deixará de pertencer à mesma? E no caso das
pesquisas sobre a recuperação da visão na utilização com artefatos que permitem um tipo de visão que
está em estágio inicial? E no caso de tetraplégicos que recuperam sua mobilidade funcional, através de
exoesqueletos, constituirá uma categoria a partir dos modelos derivados de atualização de software?
Hoje já existem pessoas amputadas que dispõem de próteses que potencializam sua mobilidade em
melhor desempenho que aqueles que participam dos Jogos Olímpicos. As pesquisas nanotecnológicas
inaugurou discussão sobre as possíveis alterações genéticas já no estágio fetal. Neste sentido, como
serão estes futuros atletas? Geneticamente programados para quebrar recordes? Serão estes conceitos
questionáveis para as Olimpíadas futuras? A noção de corporeidade amplia algumas discussões, mas
ainda necessita de maiores pesquisas e estudos. São questões que parecem derivadas da ficção
científica, mas considerando-se os atuais avanços da ciência em diferentes áreas, não se podem
desconsiderar as possibilidades de reflexão conceitual e ética que as mesmas remetem, pois a partir
destas definições, se estará consolidando ou não o famoso ideal olímpico.
Instituição
Clézio Gonçalves
[email protected]
68
Jesús Ilundáin-Agurruza
Título: El cultivo estético y deportivo de la vida: unos apuntes fenomenológicos
Palavras-chave: fenomenología, estética, deporte, Ortega, Sheets-Johnstone
Resumo:
La presentación describe los caminos por los que un etos deportivo, estético, y existencial, en
próxima consonancia con el cultivo de habilidades, lleva a una vida enriquecida. La descripción de tales
caminos conlleva una consideración de la vida misma como fenómeno y una estimación del los
deportes en termino de las experiencias cualitativas que éstos nos permiten. El aspecto cualitativo
toma carácter estético y existencial por ende. Estos elementos son engarzados por medio de los
análisis fenomenológicos de Maxine Sheets-Johnstone en lo que se refiere a la dinámica cualitativa, y
las “meditaciones” de José Ortega y Gasset en lo que concierne al aspecto estético-existencial. El
argumento, en breve, es que los deportes enriquecen nuestras vidas al fomentar la excelencia personal,
potenciar nuestras habilidades, y domar la exuberancia propia del etos deportivo orteguiano.
Referências:
Ortega y Gasset, J. Ortega y Gasset, J. 2001-2010. Obras Completas. Vols. I-X. Madrid: Taurus
Sheets-Johnstone, M. 2009. The corporeal turn. Exeter: Imprint Academic
Sheets-Johnstone, M. 2011. The Primacy of Movement, 2nd ed., Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Co.
Instituição
Jesús Ilundáin-Agurruza
Linfield College
[email protected]
69
Ester Liberato Pereira, Eduardo Klein Carmona y Janice Zarpellon Mazo
Título: A caça à raposa em Porto Alegre-Brasil: uma abordagem referenciada em Elias e Dunning
Palavras-chave: caça à raposa, história do Esporte, mimeses, catarse
Resumo:
Os autores Elias e Dunning (1992) apresentam dois conceitos, denominados mimeses e
catarse, como possíveis efeitos produzidos pelo esporte. Mimeses está associado ao fato de que o
esporte imita, de forma seletiva, uma luta da vida real. Enquanto que catarse são emoções alegres que,
por meio da prática esportiva, são vivenciadas, assim como em outros aspectos da vida. Os referidos
autores (1992) abordam a caça à raposa como a expressão de um avanço de civilização, por meio de
um processo de esportivização, com a criação de regras que diminuíam a violência na realização desta,
evidenciando uma racionalização da prática. Este estudo busca compreender como os conceitos de
mimeses e catarse são evidenciados na prática da caça à raposa em Porto Alegre na primeira metade
do século XX. Na conjuntura porto-alegrense, percebe-se o descarte do excitamento de um jogo
violento, representado pelos cães e a raposa, em suas configurações originais. Em Porto Alegre, a
raposa era representada por um cavaleiro/amazona, montado (a) em um cavalo, que fugia dos
caçadores a cavalo, os quais tinham que alcançar a raposa e tocá-la. Foram elaboradas regras
peculiares, que valorizavam o trajeto da caça. Deste modo, a caça a raposa sugere a mimese da
valorização de uma luta por uma conquista pessoal/profissional da vida, já que o momento da
perseguição é mais apreciado em detrimento do desfecho com a captura da raposa. A excitação da
perseguição à raposa também explica a forma como o conceito de catarse foi apropriado na caça à
raposa porto-alegrense, já que as emoções sentidas ao transpor obstáculos e perseguir um
cavaleiro/amazona sem conhecer previamente o percurso, remontam, por exemplo, a sentimentos de
coragem, para os quais é dada vazão em outros aspectos da vida, apresentando, assim, um caráter de
exaltação, semelhante às representações de distinção social conferidas por esta prática
Instituição
Ester Liberato Pereira
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Eduardo Klein Carmona
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
Janice Zarpellon Mazo
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
70
Marcela Mangeón, María Marta Quintana y Laura Quintana
Título: El lugar del otro en las prácticas deportivas. Una interpretación filosófica-política
Resumo:
Este trabajo tiene como propósito central reflexionar sobre las clases de Educación Física y los
supuestos que subyacen en las mismas, atendiendo a las dimensiones éticas y políticas implicadas. Más
precisamente, se busca interrogar qué sentidos inciden -en el presente- en las prácticas escolarizadas,
donde el deporte es un medio para educar.
Los supuestos que subyacen a las prácticas deportivas y el posicionamiento del docente con
respecto a su enseñanza, juegan un papel fundamental en la transmisión con respecto a los procesos
de de-subjetivación (Foucault) y de subjetivación, lo cual puede ser problematizado por medio de la
noción de “hospitalidad" –entendida como- un modo de relación primordialmente ética, es decir, de
apertura al otro. (Derrida; Lévinas).
En esta dirección, entonces, entendemos que la relación entre deporte y filosofía resulta
altamente fructífera para criticar y desnaturalizar la hegemonía de un modelo de deporte selectivocompetitivo, respecto del cual la ‘eficiencia’ y la ‘productividad’ –inscriptas en la trama del consumo y
el capitalismo- operan como valores sustanciales. Por ejemplo, es posible preguntar si acaso cuando en
Educación Física se “seleccionan” estudiantes para conformar grupos de trabajo o para representar a
la escuela, se está adhiriendo de alguna manera a esta ideología individualista, competitiva, al triunfo
de unos sobre otros, al derecho de algunos, no de todos. De este modo, la historia motriz y el
rendimiento para el ojo de otro, dejan al estudiante adentro o afuera de las diferentes experiencias
educativas.
Entonces, ¿de qué modos, quiénes y bajo qué entramados subjetivos y político institucionales,
se definen las identidades de los jóvenes?
¿Cuál es el lugar particular que ocupan las instituciones educativas, en la producción de
subjetividad adolescente y juvenil?
Muchas veces ocurre en las clases de Educación Física que se reduce al otro- estudiante a la
mismidad, a lo que uno es, tal como si fuera un espejo y donde no cabe lugar a la alteridad que intenta
resistirse a la desubjetivación, es decir a no ser reconocido como sujeto que piensa, sueña, ama,
imagina y produce creativamente. Estas relaciones intersubjetivas y donde no hay un sujeto que aloje,
desestiman el deseo de estar y pertenecer, a partir de la imposibilidad.
Hoy estamos en presencia de oportunidades de política-curricular que llevan a redefinir esta
relación Filosofía y Deporte. Esta interpretación, dispuesta en términos de corte filosófico- político,
requiere en primera instancia plantear el telón de fondo –epistemología- de una Educación Pública que
contemple el deporte para todos y todas, y no el deporte selectivo en tiempos de diversidad e
inclusión.
Desde una ética de la transmisión y en tiempos de inclusión social y educativa, es necesario repensar las prácticas deportivas y recomponer el campo del semejante, donde se pone en juego el
pensar la responsabilidad que tenemos como docentes y el modo en que ofrecemos un lugar y
hacemos mundo. El otro, al mismo tiempo en que nos trasciende, nos constituye. En este sentido, es
necesario comprender que en el deporte la diversidad se reúne en lo común pero, para esto, es
necesario valorar y habilitar al otro donde se pone en juego la intersubjetividad.
Al pensar las conexiones posibles entre Filosofía y Deporte, nos preguntamos ¿qué es lo que
hace del deporte un tema privilegiado de prácticas, discursos e imaginarios en las sociedades
modernas?
Es por esto necesario, en primer término, considerarlo como un campo de análisis, estudio e
investigación que posibilite repensarlo y replantearlo como práctica social y cultural, compleja y
multidimensional.
71
Filosofía y Deporte requieren poder comprender las relaciones entre práctica, ideología y
poder, desnaturalizando justificaciones sedimentadas.ciais.
Instituição
Marcela Mangeón
Universidad Nacional de Entre Ríos
Universidad Autonoma de Entre Ríos
Universidad del Salvador
[email protected]
María Marta Quintana
Universidad Nacional de Rio Negro
Universidad Nacional del Comahue
[email protected]
Laura Quintana
Instituto Superior de Educación Fisica, Concordia
[email protected]
72
Sara Martínez Mares
Título: La experiencia del logro en el deporte y algunos argumentos contra el dopaje genético
Palavras-chave: Frankl, logro, superación, dopaje genético, libertad
Resumo:
Trataré de exponer, primeramente, la experiencia de logro humano que subyace al fenómeno
deportivo rescatando una conferencia pronunciada por el psiquiatra Viktor Frankl, en el año 1972 5. En
segundo lugar, las ideas expuestas aquí me servirán para criticar el modelo de deporte que favorece la
postura de introducir el dopaje genético.
Comienza Frankl la ponencia de la siguiente manera: “Se obstruye el paso a la inteligencia del
deporte como fenómeno humano (…), mientras nuestro análisis se guíe por un modelo antropológico
anticuado según el cual el hombre es un ser que experimenta ciertas necesidades y tiende a
satisfacerlas a fin de evitar tensiones.6” Partiendo de la crítica al modelo freudiano, expondrá una
concepción del deporte antropológicamente contraria: 7 “El ser humano no sólo no tiende a evitar
tensiones a toda costa sino que las necesita.” 8 A esto se le añade que cuando no las encuentra, las crea.
Pero ¿por qué no habría de encontrar tensiones? Su propuesta viene de la mano de una crítica social
que sigue vigente: nuestra sociedad, desarrollada desde la época industrial, junto con el estado del
bienestar, deja muchas necesidades satisfechas, y la sociedad del consumo crea nuevas. De tal forma
que, ciertamente tenemos ventajas económicas, pero disponemos de demasiado tiempo libre. Nuestro
drama es que muchas veces no sabemos qué hacer con este tiempo, y por eso el fenómeno deportivo se
introduce en este contexto, siendo más una ascética secular9 que una catarsis moderna. Dicho en otras
palabras más cómicas: “necesitando”, al parecer, de las comodidades de la tecnología 10, se podría decir
de nosotros que ya no caminamos tanto --porque usamos el automóvil –y no subimos –porque
utilizamos el ascensor –, pero que, sin embargo, nos da por escalar montañas.
Así pues, la propuesta del autor es que el deporte competitivo bien entendido es similar al
sexto grado del alpinismo: “superar la frontera de lo humanamente posible.” Sólo si el deportista lucha
por superarse a sí mismo obtendrá dos efectos prácticos de interés general: no se “agarrotará” frente
Simposio científico internacional convocado por el comité organizador de los juegos olímpicos de München, en 1972. El
título de la conferencia es “El deporte como fenómeno humano: ¿Catarsis moderna o ascética secular?”, en Frankl (1990) El
hombre doliente, Herder, Barcelona.
6 Todas las citas extraídas forman parte de la ponencia citada. (Óp. Cit. Pág. 51)
7 Exposición que, además de ofrecer un discurso altamente motivador de cara a la práctica deportiva, suministra importantes
aplicaciones que dificultan una crítica general hacia la tesis del autor. Las aplicaciones se mencionan posteriormente, pero
para tenerlas presentes son las siguientes: Frankl ofrece claves para superar la típica paralización o agarrotamiento del
deportista antes de una competición, con lo que él denomina “derreflexión paradójica”; se trata de terapia ligada al sentido
del humor con uno mismo. Esta paralización proviene, normalmente, del ansia de la victoria, por lo que acentúa la
importancia de tener una actitud no centrada sólo en el hecho de ganar a toda costa, ya que la experiencia nos permite ver
que el que tiene esta última actitud normalmente obtiene el efecto contrario.
8 Óp. Cit. Pág. 52.
9 El concepto de “ascética secular” se refiere al hecho de la autosuperación. En nuestra sociedad de la abundancia, “el ser
humano se crea de modo artificial y deliberado ciertas situaciones de penuria” y fuerza su rendimiento porque necesita
crearse tensiones. El deporte es una forma de crear tensiones, por eso, “incluso cuando el ser humano es más bien espectador
y hace deporte pasivamente, busca la tensión.” (Frankl 1972, pág. 53)
10 Comodidades crecientes basadas mayormente en el ideario del modelo económico liberal: más eficiencia y producción en el
menor tiempo posible.
5
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al adversario11 y el nivel de satisfacción será mayor12 que aquél que sólo tiene un objetivo: ganar a los
demás y superar las marcas.13
Partiendo, pues, de esta tesis, nos lanzamos a nuestro segundo objetivo: criticar algunos
supuestos de posturas favorables al dopaje genético de acuerdo a tres líneas argumentativas:
1. Según Miah, el espíritu deportivo ya no le interesa más a nadie. Pero esto es falso: el logro
humano es una experiencia importante, no sólo en el deporte, sino en el juego, en la percepción
de la belleza, la música, en un trabajo, etc.
2. Contra presupuestos de Savulescu, no es del todo cierto que estimular la libertad eligiendo
cómo queremos ser, a través de una manipulación externa, favorece el estabilizar nuestra
identidad y contribuye al bienestar.
La emoción de la admiración, presente en el fenómeno deportivo, está ligada a la experiencia
de liberación que surge principalmente con el hecho no controlar las circunstancias exteriores o
manipularlas a nuestro gusto.
Referências:
Frankl, V.: “El deporte como fenómeno humano. ¿Catarsis moderna o ascética secular?”, en Frankl
(1990) El hombre doliente, Herder: Barcelona.
Frankfurt, H.: (1982) “The Importance of What We Care About”, Synthese, vol 53, no.2; reeditado en (y
tomado de) The Importance of What We Care About (2007a), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Savulescu, J.: (2012) ¿Decisiones peligrosas?: Una bioética desafiante. Tecnos, Madrid (Introducción y
traducción de E. Bonete y B. Rodríguez).
Instituição
Sara Martínez Mares
Universidad Católica de Valencia
[email protected]
Caso a comentar: el portero de Barcelona Robert Enke.
Caso a comentar: el alpinista Iñaki Ochoa.
13 La causa principal es que cuanto más se ansía la victoria, más se escapa ésta de las manos.” (Ibíd. Pág. 54). De esta frase se
desprenden, a mi entender, dos vertientes dignas de comentario. La primera, a modo de ejemplo, como dicen ciertos
testimonios recogidos por Frankl, “en el momento en que el deportista prevé el éxito, disminuye el rendimiento.” (Ibíd. Pág.:
56). Que, por ejemplo, ciertos equipos potentes de fútbol den por supuesta la victoria ante equipos “de segunda” hace que, a
veces, sorprendentemente pierdan o que el partido sea sumamente aburrido. Y la segunda vertiente, es un fenómeno ligado a
la ambición característica del ser humano que no se contenta con haber ganado alguna vez. Caso a comentar: el ciclista Lance
Armstrong.
11
12
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Marcelo Moraes y Fernando Marinho Mezzadri
Título: Esporte e a Estética: um diálogo com Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht e Michel Foucault
Palavras-chave: esporte, corpo, estética
Resumo:
O campo intelectual, ao aplicar ferramentas das ciências humanas acaba por atribuir ao esporte
uma carga altamente negativa. Mesmo sociólogos simpáticos ao esporte, como o alemão Norbert Elias e
o francês Pierre Bourdieu, acabaram por emitir críticas a esta manifestação. Elias, por exemplo, explicou
a ascensão do esporte como um estágio da civilização ocidental que serviu para subjugar os corpos dos
indivíduos. Já na análise do sociólogo francês, foi atribuída ao esporte a causa da diferenciação e da
distinção social. Hodiernamente é comum se falar que o motor de um evento esportivo é apenas e tão
somente o interesse econômico. Ironicamente, o inverso dessa visão – transformar o esporte num meio
de identificação com os oprimidos, como tendem a fazer alguns intelectuais e acadêmicos – não constitui
grande avanço, pois se trata mais uma vez de escrever sobre o fenômeno esportivo em nome de
princípios éticos e/ou morais, que estão localizados fora do esporte. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho
não pretende sucumbir ao encanto metafísico de interpretação e sim tratar o mesmo como um digno
objeto estético. Para valorizar esta dimensão ampara-se nas definições de Immanuel Kant; nas
contribuições do crítico literário alemão Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht; e nas análises da estética da existência
do filosofo francês Michel Foucault. As apreciações kantianas sobre os conceitos de “belo” e “sublime” se
tornam de fundamental importância para a aproximação do mesmo com a teoria estética. Gumbrecht, ao
aproximar o esporte destes conceitos kantianos, aponta que tais definições se materializam nos
“momentos singulares” que uma refinada performance esportiva proporciona. Neste momento as
contribuições de Foucault, sobre a estética da existência, tornam-se muito profícuas, visto que os
“momentos singulares” sugeridos por Gumbrecht podem ser vistas, dentro dos moldes foucaultianos,
como verdadeiras “artes da existência”. Para compreender essa dinâmica filosófica foram selecionadas
como fontes documentais as biografias de cinco atletas de renome mundial: Airton Senna, Lance
Armstrong, Roger Federer, Michael Jordan e Emil Zatopek. No contato com os documentos elencados foi
possível visualizar que os desempenhos esportivos destes atletas proporcionaram diversos “momentos
singulares”, “artes da existência” e/ou “técnicas de si” muito peculiares. Sendo assim, a principal
conclusão do presente trabalho é a de que estes esportistas de renome mundial extrapolam os ditames
éticos e/ou morais, pois a sua constante busca pelo “domínio de si” exigida pelo esporte de alto
rendimento acaba por produzir formas de vida muito peculiares e, consequentemente, novas práticas de
liberdade são produzidas.
Referências:
FOUCAULT, M. A Hermenêutica do Sujeito. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2004.
GUMBRECHT, H. U. Elogio da beleza atlética. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2005.
KANT, I. Crítica da faculdade do juízo. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 1995.
Instituição
Marcelo Moraes
Universidade Federal do Paraná
[email protected]
Fernando Marinho Mezzadri
Universidade Federal do Paraná
75
Marcelo Moraes e Silva, Aline Jorge Corrêa, Fernando Marinho Mezzadri, Palmira Sevegnani y
Katiuscia Mello Figuerôa
Título: O Esporte brasileiro entre dilemas epistemológicos: da acusação à busca por absolvição
Palavras-chave: esporte; educação física; epistemologia
Resumo:
O presente artigo visa remontar as fontes utilizadas no “processo jurídico”, a que o Esporte fora
acometido a partir da década de 1980 no Brasil. Neste período, marcado por novas estruturações da
sociedade brasileira, verificou-se que uma nascente epistemologia da área levou o Esporte ao “banco
dos réus”. Juntaram “provas” e apresentaram as mesmas à “corte”. Acusando com veemência,
acabaram levando o “réu” à condenação. (Medina, 1983; Oliveira, 1983; Cavalcanti, 1984; Bracht,
1986; Betti, 1991). Este conjunto de trabalhos tornou-se o primeiro grupo de fontes utilizadas na
elaboração do presente ensaio. A “sentença” emitida por estes autores foi um apontamento da
necessidade das práticas esportivas elaborarem novas pedagogias, principalmente se as mesmas
tivessem relação com os processos de escolarização. Afinal era “necessário” preservar a infância e
juventude dos malefícios que o Esporte poderia acarretar em suas formações. Baseado nesta sentença
foi que surgiu o conjunto de obras que constituíram o segundo bloco de análise deste estudo (Coletivo
de Autores, 1992; Kunz, 1994; Assis de Oliveira, 2001). Reflexões que buscaram elaborar estas novas
pedagogias para o ensino do esporte nas escolas brasileiras. Sendo assim, o texto busca remontar as
fontes utilizadas durante todo esse “processo jurídico”, para compreender quais foram as intenções
presentes no julgamento epistemológico que levou o Esporte a condenação pela Educação Física
brasileira. Afinal, o Esporte, o principal “réu” dos anos 1980 ,foi “julgado” justamente? O que se
verificou ao remontar as fontes é que há a necessidade de continuar a discussão. O que a história expôs
sobre o “réu” é que a forma com que ele foi “julgado” acarretou consequências para o âmbito da
Educação Física brasileira. Nesse “julgamento”, a acusação clamava por um olhar especial no âmbito
escolar, para tanto, apresentavam uma compreensão do que o Esporte poderia causar à infância e à
juventude, quando adentrasse o espaço escolar. As “provas” organizadas foram suficientes para que o
Esporte fosse “condenado” e a “causa ganha”. Sua “sentença” consistia em alcançar uma prática nova,
baseada em uma epistemologia crítica, somente através destas ações é que o mesmo poderia alcançar
a “absolvição”. Nesse sentido, é possível afirmar que o Esporte foi condenado principalmente pela
busca dos promotores por uma melhor colocação no espaço acadêmico. O Esporte ficou marcado pelos
“promotores”, que fizeram dele o baluarte de seus primeiros “casos” ou, como se viu neste artigo, os
autores da Educação Física brasileira se utilizaram de uma acepção esportiva para incitar discussões
no meio acadêmico e iniciar os primeiros estudos em torno da epistemologia, proporcionando com
isso a valorização de um discurso que deram aos promotores do caso uma maior visibilidade e uma
melhor posição no campo acadêmico brasileiro. Para finalizar, esse olhar elencado para o contexto de
“condenação” e “absolvição” do Esporte, reporta-se sobre a necessidade de continuar a discussão, pois
a única coisa que se sabe sobre o “caso”, é que ainda é discutido – não mais pelos que participaram da
“corte” sublevada para “julgar” o Esporte, mas outros que ainda estão a procurar e a “remontar” as
fontes para continuar “condenando” e/ou “absolvendo” o Esporte.
Referências:
BOURDIEU, P. Questões de Sociologia. Rio de Janeiro: Marco Zero, 1983.
FOUCAULT, M. Palavras e as Coisas: Uma arqueologia das ciências humanas.. Martins Fontes. São
Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2000.
GUMBRECHT, H. U. Elogio da beleza atlética. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2005.
76
Instituição
Marcelo Moraes
Universidade Federal do Paraná
[email protected]
Aline Jorge Corrêa
Universidade Federal do Paraná
Fernando Marinho Mezzadri
Universidade Federal do Paraná
Palmira Sevegnani
Universidade Federal do Paraná
Katiuscia Mello Figuerôa
Universidade Federal do Paraná
77
Elizabeth Pedrosa Ribeiro
Título: Empatia e vontade de vencer
Palavras-chave: empatia, vontade de vencer, ética, esporte
Resumo:
O esporte com frequência nos confronta com comportamentos que rompem com as regras
morais, tornando irrelevantes valores como a honestidade e o respeito aos outros. A busca da vitória
parece exigir dos atletas um certo grau de "imoralidade" (simulações e faltas provocadas
intencionalmente, bem como provocações e mesmo agressões não são exatamente raras em esportes
coletivos; em esportes individuais, o doping é um exemplo bem conhecido). Seriam esses
comportamentos inerentes à prática do esporte? Por outro lado, estudos recentes mostram que tais
condutas dependem de certa anulação ou bloqueio dos mecanismos empáticos em nosso cérebro. Ao
que parece, para que haja uma "vontade de vencer", é preciso menos empatia do que a moralidade
exige. Contudo, sentimentos empáticos são condições necessárias para que haja comportamentos
morais adequados. Por outro lado, para que a competição aconteça é necessário que se manifeste uma
vontade de vencer naqueles que estão competindo. Isso representa um problema para pensar a ética
no esporte, visto que a vontade de vencer pode ser uma vontade desimpedida de ganhar. Porém, um
desportista não pode deixar de cumprir seus deveres éticos para com o outro, seja ele seu adversário
ou companheiro de equipe. Parece óbvio, assim, que a ética também deve conduzir as ações humanas
no meio desportivo. Também as relações entre as instituições que lidam com o esporte devem ser
conduzidas eticamente, sendo, assim, baseadas em vínculos empáticos. Neste trabalho, assumimos que
somos seres morais e empáticos por natureza, que a empatia pode ser desenvolvida ou reprimida por
uma série de contingências. Por outro lado, assumimos também que a vontade de vencer é uma dessas
contingências, sendo inerente à competição. Assim, quanto mais importantes forem as consequências
de uma vitória, maior será a possibilidade de se violarem regras a favor de interesses próprios. A
reação de uma pessoa à vitória, ao sucesso, à fama, ao reconhecimento ou à aceitação revela dessa
forma seu próprio caráter. Conjugar empatia e vontade de vencer significa conjugar variáveis morais
eventualmente opostas; ambas, porém, necessárias para que o próprio esporte exista.
Referências:
AZEVEDO, Marco Antonio. Levando o Esporte a Sério. In: ROHDEN, Luiz; AZEVEDO, Marco Antonio;
AZAMBUJA, Celso Cândido de. FILOSOFIA E FUTEBOL: troca de passes. Porto Alegre: Sulina, 2012.
NIETZSCHE, Friedrich Wilhelm. Vontade de Potência. Disponível em: http://pensamentosnomadas.
files.wordpress.com/2012/11/a-vontade-de-poder.pdf. Acesso em: 16/07/2013.
SMITH, Adam. Teoria dos Sentimentos Morais. Trad.: Lya Luft; rev.: Eunice Ostrensky. São Paulo:
Martins Fontes, 1999
Instituição
Elizabeth Pedrosa Ribeiro
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
78
Paulo Rodrigo Pedroso da Silva y Lamartine P. DaCosta
Título: O pensamento heurístico de Occam aplicado ao problema filosófico do doping no esporte
Palavras-chave: doping, Aristóteles, Descartes, Occam
Resumo:
O problema filosófico de banimento de drogas e procedimentos para a obtenção artificial de
resultados nas competições esportivas foi resumido recentemente por Schneider (2014) por quatro
argumentos correntes que tem se mantidos inconclusivos desde a criação da World Anti-doping
Agency (WADA) em 1999: trapaça, vantagem injusta, prejudicial aos usuários e perversão da natureza
do esporte (desumanização). Para esta autora seminal da temática do doping, cada uma dessas
abordagens tem apresentado contradições em termos da filosofia analítica. Por outro lado a
complexidade do tema em questão pode ser avaliada por suas abordagens ético-jurídicas as quais
segundo Olinder (2005) comportam nove “discursos” distintos, como nos exemplos de
“medicalização”, “criminalização”, “punição” etc.
Não é surpreendente portanto que a problemática do doping no esporte tenha se mantido
insolúvel mesmo diante do aperfeiçoamento das rotinas de controle desenvolvidos pela WADA nos
seus 15 anos de existência. Neste sentido, a presente contribuição objetiva redefinir o problema do
doping ampliando suas abordagens filosóficas além da citada argumentação analítica. Esta redefinição
alcança a filosofia grega antiga que foi perceptível à convivência de argumentos opostos ao usar a
categoria de “aporia” incluindo contradições das práticas atléticas (DaCosta, 1971).
Para Aristóteles o trato com aporias implicava em “dissolver” o problema por sucessivas
sínteses e análises. Já no século 17, René Descartes abordava a convivência dos contrários por sua
filosofia “dualista” que se propunha a conhecer melhor as oposições para reorienta-las vis-à-vis amor
vs ódio, vida vs morte, vitória vs derrota etc. Entretanto, tais soluções tem sido ao longo da historia da
filosofia por vezes entendidas como reducionistas embora tenham sobrevivido pelo viés metodológico.
Nesse contexto, a presente proposta focaliza o método de Occam – filósofo do século 14 – que
consiste na eliminação heurística de contraditórios identificando versões mais simples capazes de
reduzir a complexidade da busca de conclusões imediatas. Como tal, esta simplificação metodológica
apresenta-se menos reducionista do que as categorias de análise “aporia” e “dualismo”, pois é todavia
imprecisa porém mais explicativa. Por esta razão filósofos modernos como nos exemplos de Popper e
Wittgenstein admitiram a validade da chamada “navalha de Occam” em suas criticas radicais ao fazer
científico e filosófico.
Em relação ao trato das questões de doping impõe-se portanto um repensar ao estilo de Occam
de modo a reduzir ou eliminar a estratificação dos argumentos e discursos típicos de suas inquirições.
Em suma, propomos a eleição de apenas um dos quatro argumentos de Schneider buscando uma única
conclusão com vistas à sua operacionalização pragmática. Nesta linha de conta, nossa escolha incide
sobre o argumento da perversão do esporte cuja conclusão pertinente evitará a dissolução das práticas
esportivas, algo que não ocorre com os demais argumentos.
Referências:
Schneider, A. (2014) Doping. In Torres, C. (Ed) The Bloomsbury Companion to the Philosophy of Sport.
London: Bloomsbury, pp. 350-352.
Olinder, K. (2005) Doping and Anti-doping Issues: An Inventory of the Social-legal State of knowledge.
Stckholm: RiksidrottsForbundet, pp. 13 – 18.
79
DaSilva, P.R.P., Figueiredo, V.C., Oliveira, E., DaCosta, L.P. & Czpielewski, M.A. (2010) Odds ratio for use
of anabolic steroids and other substances in fitness training gyms. Brazilian Journal of Sports and
Exercise Research, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010, pp. 122 – 126.
Instituição
Paulo Rodrigo Pedroso da Silva
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
Lamartine P. DaCosta
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
[email protected]
80
José Luis Pérez Triviño
Título:
Goles con la mano y decisiones irregulares. Una comparación entre la teoría del
Derecho y la filosofía del deporte
Palavras-chave:
teoría del Derecho, normas irregulares, concepciones del deporte, formalismo,
convencionalismo, interpretativismo
Resumo:
Los juegos o los deportes como actividades regladas han sido profusamente utilizados como
metáfora explicativa del Derecho. Hart (1961), por ejemplo, se sirve de las reglas del cricket y del
fútbol para ejemplificar la dimensión social de la regla de reconocimiento. MacIntyre y Rawls recurren
también a los juegos para ejemplificar el concepto de práctica social. Un tema donde la teoría del
Derecho y del deporte coinciden es el análisis de las decisiones irregulares, sentencias o normas en el
ámbito jurídico, el de los goles irregulares, en el ámbito del fútbol. En ambos caso se pone de
manifiesto la tensión entre las reglas y su aplicación a casos particulares. El propósito del trabajo será
trasplantar el análisis de la teoría del Derecho sobre las normas irregulares al mundo del fútbol, para
lo cual trataré de mostrar la similitud entre las diferentes teorías que en ambos ámbitos han analizado
el mismo problema (formalismo, convencionalismo, interpretativismo). En las conclusiones trataré
finalmente de exponer cuál es, en mi opinión, la forma más adecuada de enfrentarse al problema de las
decisiones que son a un tiempo irregulares y últimas en cualquier sistema normativo, sea jurídico o
deportivo.
Referências:
D’AGOSTINO, F. “The Ethos of Games”, Philosophic Inquiry in Sport, W.J. Morgan and K.v. Meier (Eds.).
2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1995. También en Journal of Sport Philosophy, VIII, 1981.
LOLAND, S., Fair Play in Sport: A Moral Norm System. London & New York: Routledge, 2002.
TAMBURRINI, C.M. ¿La mano de Dios? Una visión distinta del deporte, Buenos Aires, Eds. Continente,
2000.
TORRES, C.-CAMPOS, D. “Los goles con la mano: ¿deben o no ser considerados como parte del juego?
En ¿La pelota no dobla? Ensayos filosóficos en torno al fútbol, Buenos Aires, Ed. Zorzal, 2006.
TORRES, C., “What Counts as Part of a Game? A Look at Skills”. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,
XXVII, 2000.
Instituição
José Luis Pérez Triviño
Universitat Pompeu Fabra
[email protected]
81
César R. Torres
Título: El boxeo y los Juegos Olímpicos de la Juventud
Palavras-chave: Juegos Olímpicos de la Juventud, boxeo, salud, autonomía, Olimpismo
Resumo:
Los Juegos Olímpicos de la Juventud (JOJ), inaugurados en el 2010, constituyen no sólo el
último emprendimiento del Comité Olímpico Internacional (COI) sino también el evento
multideportivo internacional más grande para deportistas jóvenes. Su Programa Competitivo está
basado en el de los Juegos Olímpicos aunque con menos disciplinas y eventos, pero con algunas
disciplinas nuevas como el torneo de básquetbol de tres contra tres en medio campo de juego, y otras
innovaciones como la inclusión de competencias de equipos de géneros mixtos. Si bien los JOJ están
destinados a deportistas entre 15 y 18 años, cada Federación Deportiva Internacional determina el
rango específico de edad para su deporte. En el caso del boxeo, los segundos JOJ que se organizarán en
Nanjing, China en agosto de este año, incluirán 78 boxeadores y boxeadoras (60 hombres y 18
mujeres) entre 17 y 18 años que competirán en diez y tres categorías para hombres y mujeres
respectivamente.
La motivación detrás de los JOJ es tanto la competencia deportiva como los valores que han
inspirado y encuadrado a los Juegos Olímpicos desde su creación a fines del siglo diecinueve. Estos
valores son parte de la visión filosófica conocida como “Olimpismo”. De esta manera, como expresara
Jacques Rogge, ex presidente del COI, antes del lanzamiento de los JOJ: “El principal objetivo […] no es
la competencia por sí misma. El principal objetivo es dar a los jóvenes una educación basada en los
valores Olímpicos”.i Dicho de otra manera, los JOJ han sido concebidos como un ingente esfuerzo
pedagógico Olímpico. En el corazón de los JOJ reside el intento de familiarizar a los deportistas jóvenes
con el Olimpismo y sus valores “en un espíritu divertido y festivo que despierte conciencia sobre temas
importantes como los beneficios de un estilo de vida saludable, la lucha contra el dopaje, los desafíos
globales y su papel como embajadores deportivos en sus comunidades”.ii En este sentido, el COI
anunció en un comunicado de prensa después de que su Comité Ejecutivo aprobara los JOJ en el 2007
que “Los eventos deportivos serán elegidos cuidadosamente para proteger la salud de los jóvenes
deportistas”.iii
En esta ponencia argumentaré que el boxeo no es apropiado para promover los objetivos
proclamados para los JOJ, y que el mismo debería ser removido del Programa Competitivo de dicho
evento. Una línea argumentativa se centrará en el impacto cuestionable que el boxeo tiene en la salud
de los deportistas jóvenes. Temas de autonomía, consentimiento y paternalismo serán discutidos en
relación a la salud de dichos deportistas. En este sentido argumentaré no sólo que el boxeo es dañino
para la salud de los deportistas jóvenes sino que también éstos podrían no poseer el nivel de
autonomía requerido para permitirles que practiquen un deporte con tal riesgo de consecuencias
serias e incluso irreparables para la salud. Una segunda línea argumentativa se focalizará en el
propósito central del boxeo y su relación con el Olimpismo y la propagación de sus valores. Esto me
permitirá argumentar que el boxeo es un deporte proclive a la violencia y por lo tanto incoherente con
los valores Olímpicos. Al fin y al cabo, la aspiración educativa de los JOJ puede lograrse más
efectivamente a través de otros deportes cuya práctica está mejor alineada con los ideales Olímpicos.
Instituição
César R. Torres
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
[email protected]
82
Stephen Wade, “No kidding: Teens to get Youth Olympic Games,” USA Today, April 25, 2010, http://www.usatoday.com/spo
rts/olympics/2007-04-25-2774646336_x.htm (accessed November 1, 2010).
i
International Olympic Committee, Youth and Olympism. Olympic Studies Centre Content Package (Lausanne: International
Olympic Committee, 2010), 5.
ii
See International Olympic Committee, “IOC Executive Board Welcomes Idea of Youth Olympic Games,” April 26, 2007,
http://www.olympic.org/content/news/media-resources/manual-news/19 99-2009/2007/04/26/ioc-executive-board-wel
comes-idea-of-youth-olympic-games/ (accessed November 1, 2010).
iii
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