INTEGRATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND
POLICY TO MANAGE FOREST AND WATER
RESOURCES AROUND THE ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR
IN BRAZIL
By
Eduardo Humberto Ditt
A thesis submitted
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
for the University of London
Centre for Environmental Policy
Imperial College London
January 2008
ABSTRACT
Remnants of Atlantic Forest occupy approximately 50% of the catchments around the
lake of Atibainha, which is one of the most important reservoirs of water for human
consumption in south-eastern Brazil. Degradation of these forests has been resulting in
severe decline in ecosystem services. Innovative conservation mechanisms are
necessary to reverse these tendencies of forest degradation.
The current research contributes to the development of such mechanisms. It starts with a
description of local conditions and policies to protect the environment in the region.
Analyses of land use reveal that the legislation to protect the forests is only partially
respected. These analyses are followed by physical estimates of some ecosystem
services from various land use scenarios, composed of native forests, eucalyptus,
pastures, and residences, to reveal the potential impacts of land use change on human
welfare.
The total economic value of the various land uses is calculated through both the
application of methods of economic valuation of ecosystem services, and the estimation
of farmers’ profits from the current productive systems.
A geographic information system is used to produce economic value maps of ecosystem
services which, along with other information, are used to discuss the influence of the
main land users in the region on the maintenance of ecosystem services.
Results suggest that land use decisions aimed towards the conversion of native forests in
the region have been substantially influenced by the potential direct benefits provided
by productive systems such as eucalyptus production and cattle ranching; despite the
fact that the provision of ecosystem services in natural forests has a much higher value.
This thesis proposes a market mechanism that captures the values of ecosystem services
through a system of payments for these services which could influence land use
decisions towards the conservation of natural forests.
2
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis comprises only my original work unless otherwise stated in the
text. None of this work has been submitted for any other qualification at any other
university.
Eduardo H. Ditt
January 2008
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the people who contributed to my
PhD study. My gratitude goes to:
For the great support and supervision: Jon Knight and Susana Mourato.
For the great supervision at the initial stage of the study: Jaboury Ghazoul.
For funding the research: WFN - Whitley Fund for Nature; Russel E. Train Education for Nature Program/WWF; IFS - International Foundation for Science;
Overseas Research Scheme; USAID - United States Agency for International
Development.
For the institutional support: IPÊ – Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas, IEB – Instituto
Internacional de Educação do Brasil, Lead International, and Imperial College London.
For the encouragement with wisdom: Claudio Padua and Suzana Padua.
For the friendship, motivation and dream: all members and friends of IPÊ.
For the friendly working environment: users of room 101 in Manor House (Silwood
Park), room 307 in Mech. Eng. Building (South Kensington), and my colleagues at IPÊ.
For the friendship and crucial contribution in all stages of field research: Rafael
Ruas and Mariana Figueiredo.
For the work in data collection: Camila Toledo, Fernanda Rosseto, Humberto
Malheiros, Fernanda Zimbres and colleagues from IPÊ.
4
For the collaboration in the provision of data: farmers and owners of hotels who
were interviewed.
For the technical contribution: Paulo de Marco, John Mumford, Julian Evans, Pedro
Pedro, Paulo Henrique Cardoso Peixoto, Luis Henrique Chaves, Jose Furtado, Simone
Ranieri, Joseline Filippe, Gerd Sparovek.
For the best examples of union and collaboration: my family.
Finally and most importantly, for the patience, comprehension, unfailing love,
continuous support, and for taking care of me: my beloved wife, Patrícia!
5
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... 2
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... 4
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................ 11
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................... 13
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................ 15
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 17
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 17
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT................................................................................... 19
1.2.1 Land use decisions and the provision of individual and social benefits........ 19
1.2.2 Land use policies and the provision of ecosystem services........................... 19
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................................... 20
1.3.1 To evaluate the contribution of existing legislation to the provision of
ecosystem services.................................................................................................. 20
1.3.2 To assess the provision of ecosystem services in various land uses ............. 20
1.3.3 To estimate economic value of land uses ...................................................... 20
1.3.4 To characterize land users and their roles as providers and beneficiaries of
ecosystem services.................................................................................................. 20
1.3.5 To propose land use guidelines and mechanisms for the provision of
ecosystem services.................................................................................................. 21
1.4 THESIS STRUCTURE ........................................................................................ 22
1.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE ............................................................... 24
1.5.1 Information and new data .............................................................................. 24
1.5.2 Methods ......................................................................................................... 24
1.5.3 Policies .......................................................................................................... 24
1.6 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 26
6
Chapter 2: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE INTERVENTIONS IN THE
ATLANTIC FOREST LANDSCAPE AROUND THE ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR,
SOUTH-EASTERN BRAZIL...................................................................................... 29
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 29
2.2 THE ATLANTIC FOREST AROUND THE ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR ........ 31
2.3 THE CANTAREIRA SYSTEM........................................................................... 33
2.4 LEGAL RULES OF CONSERVATION ............................................................. 34
2.4.1 Protected Areas.............................................................................................. 34
2.4.2 Forests............................................................................................................ 34
2.4.3 Water ............................................................................................................. 35
2.5 PARTITIONING LANDSCAPE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AT A
LOCAL SCALE ......................................................................................................... 40
2.5.1 Catchment delineation ................................................................................... 40
2.5.2 Mapping land uses ......................................................................................... 42
2.5.3 Land users and conservation of forest and water resources .......................... 42
2.6 OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOUND INTERVENTIONS IN THE LANDSCAPE:
CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................ 44
2.7 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3: DEFYING LEGAL PROTECTION OF ATLANTIC FOREST IN THE
TRANSFORMING LANDSCAPE AROUND THE ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR,
SOUTH-EASTERN BRAZIL ..................................................................................... 50
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 50
3.2 METHODS........................................................................................................... 53
3.2.1 Study area ...................................................................................................... 53
3.2.2 Mapping forests, streams, reservoir and catchments..................................... 54
3.2.3 Delineation of Permanent Preservation Areas of the Forest Code ................ 54
3.2.4 Delineation of areas targeted by Decree of Law 750 and by Atlantic Forest
law .......................................................................................................................... 55
3.2.5 Delineation of scenarios of legal vulnerability.............................................. 56
3.3 RESULTS............................................................................................................. 57
3.3.1 Permanent Preservation Areas....................................................................... 57
3.3.2 Areas protected by legislation according to stage of regeneration................ 59
3.3.3 Current legal vulnerability to deforestation................................................... 59
3.4 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................... 61
3.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 65
3.6 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 66
7
Chapter 4: LAND USE CHANGE AND AVAILABILITY OF ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES IN THE BRAZILIAN ATLANTIC FOREST ...................................... 69
4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 69
4.1.1 Carbon stocks in forest ecosystems and mitigation of climate change ......... 70
4.1.2 Preventing sedimentation of the Atibainha reservoir .................................... 70
4.1.3 Purification of water ...................................................................................... 71
4.1.4 Maintenance of soil fertility .......................................................................... 72
4.2 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 74
4.2.1 Study area ...................................................................................................... 74
4.2.2 Mapping ecosystem services and scenario analysis ...................................... 74
4.2.3 Estimation of carbon stocks........................................................................... 75
4.2.4 Estimation of sediment delivery.................................................................... 76
4.2.5. Assessment of water quality ......................................................................... 79
4.2.6 Assessment of variations in soil fertility ....................................................... 79
4.3 RESULTS............................................................................................................. 81
4.3.1 Land use and carbon stocks ........................................................................... 81
4.3.2 Land use and sediment delivery in the reservoir ........................................... 82
4.3.3 Land use and quality of water........................................................................ 83
4.3.4 Soil fertility.................................................................................................... 84
4.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .................................................................. 87
4.5 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 90
Chapter 5: ECONOMIC VALUE MAPS OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:
INNOVATIVE TOOLS FOR PLANNING INTERVENTIONS IN THE
BRAZILIAN ATLANTIC FOREST .......................................................................... 95
5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 95
5.2 THE STUDY AREA ............................................................................................ 97
5.3 VALUES OF LAND USES AROUND THE ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR ........ 98
5.3.1 Total economic value (TEV) of ecosystem services ..................................... 98
5.3.2 Scenic beauty................................................................................................. 99
5.3.3 Forestry production ..................................................................................... 100
5.3.4 Pastures........................................................................................................ 100
5.3.5 Mitigation of climate change....................................................................... 101
5.3.6 Protection of soil and water ......................................................................... 102
5.3.7. Maintenance of soil fertility ....................................................................... 102
5.3.8 Pharmaceutical uses..................................................................................... 103
5.3.9 Sources of seeds for forest restoration......................................................... 103
5.3.10 Conservation of biodiversity ..................................................................... 104
5.4 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 105
5.4.1 Mapping ecosystem services ....................................................................... 105
5.4.2 Assigning economic values to carbon storage............................................. 106
5.4.3. Assigning economic values to prevention of sediment delivery in the water
reservoir ................................................................................................................ 106
5.4.4 Assigning economic values to the maintenance of soil fertility.................. 107
5.4.5 Assigning economic values to provision of recreation and tourism............ 107
8
5.4.6 Assigning economic values to benefits obtained from eucalyptus and pasture
.............................................................................................................................. 110
5.4.7 Transferring benefits ................................................................................... 111
5.4.8 Valuing ecosystem services in areas legally designated for conservation .. 111
5.5 RESULTS........................................................................................................... 113
5.5.1 Economic values of carbon storage ............................................................. 113
5.5.2 Economic values of protection of soil and water ........................................ 113
5.5.3 Economic values of maintenance of soil fertility ........................................ 114
5.5.4 Economic values of provision of recreation and tourism ............................ 115
5.5.5 Economic value of forestry production ....................................................... 117
5.5.6 Economic value of pasture .......................................................................... 118
5.5.7 Option and non-use values .......................................................................... 119
5.5.8 Total economic value and analysis of alternative scenarios........................ 119
5.5.9 Costs and benefits of law enforcement........................................................ 121
5.6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ................................................................ 123
5.7 REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 129
Chapter 6: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROPOSING
MECHANISMS OF PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE
BRAZILIAN ATLANTIC FOREST ........................................................................ 136
6.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 136
6.2 PIONEERING INITIATIVES OF PES.............................................................. 139
6.3 PES INITIATIVES IN BRAZIL ........................................................................ 142
6.4 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND LAND USES FOR THE PROPOSED PES . 146
6.4.1 Social and private benefits of land uses....................................................... 146
6.4.2 Possible eligible ecosystem services ........................................................... 147
6.4.3 Possible eligible activities ........................................................................... 147
6.5 LAW ENFORCEMENT AND THE POTENTIAL FOR PES .......................... 149
6.6 POTENTIAL PROVIDERS OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ............................ 152
6.7 POTENTIAL BUYERS OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES................................... 153
6.7.1 Philanthropic buyers .................................................................................... 153
6.7.2 Private buyers .............................................................................................. 153
6.7.3 International Community............................................................................. 154
6.7.4 Public sector buyer ...................................................................................... 154
6.8 INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP ............................................................................... 155
6.9 CERTIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ........................................... 156
6.10 SUGGESTED STRUCTURE OF PES............................................................. 159
6.11 CHALLENGES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF PES .................................... 162
6.12 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................. 165
6.13 REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 167
9
Chapter 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .................................................... 172
7.1 PURPOSE OF THE THESIS ............................................................................. 172
7.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS.............................................................................. 174
7.2.1 Analysis of landscape referenced by watersheds ........................................ 174
7.2.2 Law enforcement and policy opportunities ................................................. 174
7.2.3 Physical estimates of ecosystem services having indirect use values ......... 174
7.2.4 Mapping economic values of ecosystem services ....................................... 175
7.2.5 Proposal of PES mechanism........................................................................ 176
7.3 STRENGTHS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH ......................... 177
7.4 APPLICABILITY BEYOND THE STUDY AREA.......................................... 179
7.4.1 Ecosystem services analysis framework...................................................... 179
7.4.2 Analysis of land use policies ....................................................................... 181
7.4.3 Ecosystem services assessments.................................................................. 182
7.4.4 Valuing ecosystem services......................................................................... 183
7.4.5 PES mechanisms ......................................................................................... 185
7.5 IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS ...................................................................... 187
7.5.1 Stakeholders awareness of failures in the observance of legislation........... 187
7.5.2 Costs of disrespecting the law ..................................................................... 187
7.5.3 Preliminary projects relating to carbon storage........................................... 187
7.5.4 Development of PES schemes..................................................................... 188
7.6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 189
10
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Thesis structure........................................................................................... 22
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Objectives of the National Policy of Water Resources (NPWR) and the
National System of Management of Water Resources (NSMWR) ............................ 36
Table 2.2 Instruments of the National Policy of Water Resources with their respective
applicability. ............................................................................................................... 37
Table 2.3 Institutions that compose the National System of Management of Water
Resources, and their respective tasks according to the federal laws 9433/1997 and
9984/2000. .................................................................................................................. 38
Table 2.4 Themes of “Continuous Duration Programs” (CDP) determined by the
National Council of Water Resources (CNRH, 2005c). ............................................. 39
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Criteria based on height and diameter of trees determined by official rules
of the State and Federal governments to classify the stage of forest regeneration as
“Advanced”, “Medium”, “Initial”, and “Pioneer”...................................................... 55
Table 3.2 Pairwise post hoc comparisons (Tukey Test) among restrictions to
deforestation within PPAs .......................................................................................... 58
Table 3.3. Mean diameters and heights of trees for forests F1 and F2....................... 59
Table 3.4 Total area of forested and non forested lands outside PPAs or fitting
different combinations of PPA land use restrictions. ................................................. 60
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Land use scenarios considered in the quantification of ecosystem services
.................................................................................................................................... 75
Table 4.2 Values of cover management factor and support practice factor ............... 79
Table 4.3 Carbon stocks in the main land uses around the Atibainha reservoir......... 82
Table 4.6 Significant correlations between land use and water chemistry in buffer
zones of 30m, 100m, and 200m around streams. ....................................................... 84
Table 4.7 Results of analysis of variance for comparing soil fertility in different land
uses at different sampling depths................................................................................ 85
Table 4.8 Results of post hoc analysis performed with Scheffé test for revealing
influence of land use on the content of organic matter............................................... 86
11
Chapter 5
Table 5.1. Economic values and land uses around the Atibainha reservoir ............... 99
Table 5.2 Capacity of water storage in the reservoirs of the Cantareira System
(Source: Braga, 2004)............................................................................................... 107
Table 5.3 Number of visits and travel cost per visitor from five distance zones in the
State of São Paulo..................................................................................................... 110
Table 5.4 Results of regression analysis with travel cost per visit as the independent
variable and number of visits per 100,000 people as the dependent variable. ......... 116
Table 5.5 Average values of data collected in interviews with producers of
eucalyptus. ................................................................................................................ 118
Table 5.6. Average values of data collected in interviews with cattle ranchers....... 118
Table 5.7 Total economic values of current land uses around the Atibainha reservoir
per year. .................................................................................................................... 121
Table 5.8 Values of ecosystem services in “Permanent Preservation Areas” (PPA) in
various land use scenarios ........................................................................................ 122
Table 5.9 Individual contributions for the average TEV of ecosystem services ...... 123
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Total economic values obtained in scenarios of pasture, eucalyptus and
native forest, and respective beneficiaries (values per year). ................................... 146
Table 6.2 Suggested principles, criteria and indicators for the development of a
system of certification of ecosystem services........................................................... 158
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Strengths and limitations of the current research ..................................... 178
12
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Study area: lands around the Atibainha reservoir, eastern São Paulo State,
Brazil .......................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Maps of reservoirs in the Cantareira System, State of São Paulo, and
original distribution of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. ....................................................... 32
Figure 2.2 Delineation of catchments for a fine scale analysis of landscape around the
Atibainha reservoir. .................................................................................................... 41
Figure 2.3. Land uses and land users around the Atibainha reservoir........................ 45
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Study area, composed by catchments that surround the Atibainha reservoir
in eastern São Paulo State........................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.2 Deforested PPAs on margins of streams, margins of rivers and hilly slopes.
.................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.3 Mean proportion of forest cover in each category of legal restriction for
deforestation.. ............................................................................................................. 58
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Above ground stocks of carbon in trees per unit of area, estimated for each
of the main land uses in the study area. ...................................................................... 81
Figure 4.2 Classification of the catchments according to the average prevention of
sediment delivery in the reservoir per unit of area (t/ha). .......................................... 83
Figure 4.3 Mean contents of organic matter in soils occupied by native forests or
other uses. ................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Classification of municipalities of the State of São Paulo according to their
distances from Nazaré Paulista................................................................................. 109
Figure 5.2 Economic value map of carbon storage in the current land uses. ........... 113
Figure 5.3 Economic value map of prevention of sedimentation in the current land
uses. .......................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 5.4 Economic value map of maintenance of soil fertility in the current land
uses. .......................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 5.5 Zonal travel cost demand graph .............................................................. 116
Figure 5.6 Economic value map of direct use values (tourism/recreation, production
of eucalyptus, and cattle ranching in pastures) in the current land uses................... 117
13
Figure 5.7 Economic value map of option and non use values in the current land uses.
.................................................................................................................................. 119
Figure 5.8 Classes of total economic values of the current land uses around the
Atibainha reservoir, expressed in U$/hectare/year................................................... 120
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Geographic interpretation of forest laws, ownership of the water company
and forest cover. ....................................................................................................... 151
Figure 6.2. Flowchart of the suggested system of payments for ecosystem services164
14
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AGB
Above ground biomass
ANOVA
Analysis of variance
B
Boron (chemical element)
BEF
Biomass expansion factor
C
Carbon (chemical element)
CO2
Carbon dioxide
Ca
Calcium (chemical element)
CDM
Clean Development Mechanism
CDP
Continuous duration programs
CEC
Cation exchange capacity
Cu
Copper (chemical element)
DBH
Diametre at breast height
DEM
Digital elevation model
EPA
Environmental protected area
F1
Designation to young native forests
F2
Designation to old native forests
FEHIDRO State Fund of Water Resources
FRCSA
Fund for payments of costs of environmental services
FSC
Forest Stewardship Council
GEF
Global Environmental Facility
GIS
Geographic Information System
K
Potassium (chemical element)
Kg
Kilogram
Km
Kilometre
LR
Legal Reserve
MUSLE
Modified universal soil loss equation
NCWR
National Council of Water Resources
N-NH3
Ammonium
NO2-N
Nitrite
NO3
Nitrate
NPWR
National Policy of Water Resources
NSMWR
National System of Management of Water Resources
15
PCA
Principal component analysis
PCJ
Rivers “Piracicaba, Capivari, and Jundiaí”
PES
Payment for ecosystem services
PO4
Phosphate
PPA
Permanent Preservation Area
SABESP
Water company in São Paulo
TAC
Compliance associated to impacts on environment
(“Termo de ajuste de conduta”)
TC
Travel cost
TEV
Total economic value
USLE
Universal soil loss equation
WTP
Willingness to pay
16
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The Atlantic Forest is one of the most threatened biomes in the world. Historically it
covered more than 1 million square kilometres of land in Brazil, but today is reduced to
less than 8% of its original distribution (Myers et al., 2000; Morellato & Haddad, 2000).
Within its domains is one of the largest continuous urban areas in the world: the
metropolitan region of São Paulo, with more than 19 million residents.
More than 50% of the human consumption of water in the region is provided by the
Cantareira System, which is formed by 6 inter-connected lakes (Whately & Cunha,
2007). The focus of this research is an area of 9,000 hectares around one of these lakes:
the Atibainha Reservoir (Figure 1.1), which is located 90 km from the city of São Paulo.
A state-controlled water company owns 20% of these lands, whereas the remaining 80%
are privately owned. Current land cover is mostly native forests, pastures, plantations of
eucalyptus and urban areas (Fadini & Carvalho, 2004).
Figure 1.1 Study area: lands around the Atibainha reservoir, eastern São Paulo State, Brazil
The use of land around the Atibainha reservoir has been progressively changing over
time due to loss of native forest, expansion of urban areas and productive systems such
as plantations of eucalyptus. Reasons include lack of economic alternatives and
increased urbanization due to the demand for second homes for people from nearby
large towns (Hoeffel et al., 2006).
17
A serious consequence of these land-use changes is the decline in benefits that people
obtain from the local ecosystems, such as climate regulation, conservation of soil and
water, and tourism. These benefits are known as ecosystem services (Millenium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2000; Costanza, 1997; Daily, 1997).
A major obstacle for preventing losses of ecosystem services is that their value is not
fully recognized by policy makers (Guo et al., 2001). In this respect, uncovering the
economic value of the services provided by ecosystems would be instrumental in
altering decisions about use and management of natural resources and ecosystems
(Pearce and Moran, 1994). There are some obstacles for uncovering these values, such
as the lack of market and prices for ecosystem services. However, overcoming these
difficulties has become increasingly possible due to advances in economic valuation
techniques (Motta, 1997).
Knowledge of the value of ecosystem services can be applied in conservation of forests
through mechanisms of payments for ecosystem services (PES). In 1997, Costa Rica
initiated a pioneering experiment in the development of PES mechanisms for the
maintenance of land uses that favour the provision of ecosystem services (Kosoy et al.,
2007; Rosa et al., 2004; Furtado et al., 1999). The principle of the scheme of payments
for ecosystem services (PES) is that land users who provide ecosystem services must be
compensated and the beneficiaries of these services must pay for their provision. The
development of such schemes has been stimulated by the increasing belief in the
effectiveness of market-based mechanisms for conservation. The experiences in Costa
Rica have inspired the development of similar schemes in other Latin American
countries (Pagiola et al., 2005).
Currently, a number of PES initiatives already exist in Brasil. They consist of forest
conservation and restoration projects with the purpose of reducing the concentration of
atmospheric CO2 (Yu, 2004), as well as policy initiatives that include the creation of
laws to facilitate the implementation of PES schemes (Amazonas, 2007; Mattos et al.,
2001; Extrema, 2005). The serious losses of ecosystem services associated to land use
changes around the Atibainha reservoir can potentially be minimised through the
development of new and existing PES initiatives. However, the development and
improvement of such initiatives depend crucially on gathering more information on
ecosystem services, their values and policies. These are the aims of the studies that
compose this thesis.
18
1.2 Problem statement
1.2.1 Land use decisions and the provision of individual and social benefits
Land use decisions towards conversion of forests for other land uses such as eucalyptus,
pasture or urban areas can result in substantial decline in the provision of ecosystem
services in the lands around the Atibainha reservoir. Some of these services can
potentially have a high social importance. A key reason that some land users decide to
convert forests is that often the individual benefits obtained from development (i.e.
cattle ranching and eucalyptus plantations) outweigh the values of ecosystem services
associated with conservation. Furthermore, the costs of forest conservation are normally
paid by single land users, such as farmers, whereas the benefits are normally shared
among third parties. Thus, the unfair distribution among the population of the gains and
losses associated with land use changes is a major threat to the provision of social
ecosystem services.
In order to design policies to address this problem, it is necessary to both analyze the
interests and incentives of the main land users and estimate the provision of ecosystem
services that can be expected from each land use. These analyses also require measuring
the individual and social economic values that are associated with various land uses.
1.2.2 Land use policies and the provision of ecosystem services
The development and implementation of effective land use policies is crucial for
avoiding severe loss of ecosystem services in rapidly-transforming landscapes.
Conventional policies and mechanisms of command-and-control, based on legislation to
regulate land use, are important but not always sufficient. Land uses around the
Atibainha reservoir are primarily regulated by two federal laws. One was created to
prevent clearing remnants of Atlantic Forest (Brasil, 2006). The other is meant to ensure
the maintenance of forest on the margins of water bodies, steep slopes, mountain-tops,
and in 20% of the area of every rural property (Brasil, 1965). These laws have not been
fully respected (Ditt et al., 2006).
Losses of ecosystem services due to non-observance of these laws can be prevented
through the development of complementary land use strategies. Mechanisms of
payments for ecosystem services (PES) are some possible strategies. These mechanisms
depend on understanding observance of current laws and promoting land uses that
favour the provision of ecosystem services.
19
1.3 Aim and objectives
The aim of this thesis is to improve the knowledge of the magnitude and the value of
ecosystem services in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, specifically in the region of lake
Atibainha, and to contribute to the development of land use strategies that favour the
provision of ecosystem services in the study area such as PES schemes. The main
objectives of the research are described below:
1.3.1 To evaluate the contribution of existing legislation to the provision of ecosystem
services
Two federal laws regulate land use in the study area by specifying which areas must be
forested. Evaluating the extent to which these laws have been respected is a prerequisite for the development of new land-use policies.
1.3.2 To assess the provision of ecosystem services in various land uses
Provision of ecosystem services such as storage of carbon in forests, prevention of
sediment delivery in the lake, maintenance of soil fertility, and maintenance of chemical
quality of water is expected to vary across land uses and also depend on characteristics
of the local environment such as slope and soil. Physical assessments of ecosystem
services in various scenarios of land use and environmental conditions are necessary to
determine how human welfare can be affected by land use changes.
1.3.3 To estimate economic value of land uses
Economic value can be estimated for land uses according to the benefits associated with
their ecosystem services or to income obtained in economic productive systems.
Uncovering these values is important in understanding the economic causes and
consequences of land use changes.
1.3.4 To characterize land users and their roles as providers and beneficiaries of
ecosystem services
Ecosystem services can decline due to land use changes determined by land users’
perception of individual gains. Therefore, an in-depth analysis of the interests and
incentives of land users is important to understand the factors affecting land use
decisions.
20
1.3.5 To propose land use guidelines and mechanisms for the provision of ecosystem
services
The obtained information about effectiveness of land use policies, land uses, land use
decisions, and values of ecosystem services can be used to design solutions for the
problem of ecosystem services loss. One element of these possible solutions can be the
development of PES mechanisms.
21
1.4 Thesis structure
As listed in table 1.1 the thesis is structured in seven chapters including this
introduction.
Table 1.1 Thesis structure
Chapter 1:
Introduction
Chapter 2:
Past, present and future interventions in the Atlantic Forest landscape
around the Atibainha reservoir, south eastern Brazil.
Chapter 3:
Defying legal protection of Atlantic Forest in the transforming landscape
around the Atibainha reservoir, southeastern Brazil
Chapter 4:
Land use change and availability of ecosystem services in the Brazilian
Atlantic Forest
Economic value maps of ecosystem services: innovative tools for planning
interventions in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
Challenges and opportunities for proposing mechanisms of payments for
ecosystem services in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest
Chapter 7:
Discussion and conclusion
Chapter 2 explores aspects related to human interventions in the landscape of the study
area. The purpose is to compile all the basic information that is necessary for the
subsequent studies of the thesis. These aspects include historical causes of natural
resources degradation, status of the Atlantic Forest biome, governance and legislation
related to forest and water resources, spatial distribution of land uses and land users,
gaps of knowledge about landscape planning, and opportunities for developing
innovative land-use policies. Tools of geographic information system are used for
organizing some of the information obtained and partitioning the landscape into
watershed units, allowing more refined analysis of ecosystem services and policies.
In chapter 3, using tools of geographic information systems, the spatial distribution of
Atlantic Forest remnants and the spatial coverage of the forest legislation is investigated
in order to reveal situations in which the provision of ecosystem services can be
hindered due to absence or non-observance of the laws.
Chapter 4 presents physical assessments of four ecosystem services in the study area:
carbon storage in forest biomass for mitigation of climate change, prevention of erosion
and sedimentation of the water reservoir, maintenance of chemical quality of water, and
maintenance of soil fertility. The assessments are developed in four land use scenarios:
22
native forest, pasture, eucalyptus, and bare soil or urban area. Each of the selected
ecosystem services requires a specific method of assessment. Geographic information
system is used to control input data of some variables such as slope and type of soil that
had to be considered in the estimates of ecosystem services, as well as for organizing a
spatial representation of the results of the assessments.
In chapter 5 the total economic value of various land uses are calculated. This includes
the value of ecosystem services and the income obtained from productive systems such
as forestry and pasturage. Various methods of valuation, discussed by Pearce et al.
(2006) are applied, including replacement cost, travel cost, and benefit transfer.
Methods of spatial economic valuation, discussed by Eade & Moran (1996) are adapted
to this study for controlling in geographic information system the values of ecosystem
services according to variations in environmental characteristics at any point of the
landscape.
Chapter 6 analyses challenges and opportunities for establishing PES mechanisms in
the study area. It describes some pioneering initiatives in Brazil, the influence of the
value of land uses estimated in chapter 5 upon land use decisions, and the necessity of
developing procedures for certifying the provision of ecosystem services. This chapter
concludes by suggesting a structure of PES schemes to be used in private initiatives and
in policies.
Chapter 7 contains a final discussion about how the studies related in this thesis have
addressed the stated problem and how the objectives have been achieved.
23
1.5 Contribution to knowledge
This thesis contributes to knowledge at three different levels: information and new data,
methods, and policies.
1.5.1 Information and new data
This is the first study that measures the various ecosystem services that are provided in
the study area, and then goes on to reveal their total economic value.
This research is innovative in revealing previously unknown details of the impacts of
land use changes on the provision of some ecosystem services around the Atibainha
reservoir. This has been possible due to the control in geographic information system of
data collected in the physical surveys, which was subsequently used in the estimates of
ecosystem services.
Another contribution was the delineation of small catchments for partitioning the
landscape into small units of spatial analysis. The obtained delineation of catchments
will contribute to further studies of the landscape.
1.5.2 Methods
This study is one of the very few to use methods of mapping ecosystem services (Troy
& Wilson, 2006). It has contributed for improving these methods by demonstrating that
they can be used for expressing the total economic values of ecosystem services and
other benefits derived from land uses.
It demonstrates how the science of ecosystem services can benefit from adapting
various scientific methods that are traditionally used for other purposes. For instance,
the assignment of values to the service of carbon storage was done through adaptation
of vegetation survey methods, which had been originally developed for studies of
phytosociology (Martins, 1993). For the first time, methods for estimating prevention of
soil erosion and sedimentation, originally applied for agriculture purposes, have been
used for valuing ecosystem services. The same has occurred with analysis of soil
fertility.
1.5.3 Policies
In terms of policies, three important contributions have been made. First, forest
legislation was interpreted geographically. Second, a spatial analysis was undertaken of
24
the extent to which legislation has been respected. Finally, scientific information is
provided for the development of PES schemes to be used both in private and in policies
in the study area.
25
1.6 References
Amazonas, 2007. Lei Estadual 3135 de 04 de junho de 2007. Assembléia Legislativa do
Estado do Amazonas, Manaus.
Brasil, 1965. Codigo Florestal Brasileiro: lei 4.771 de 15 de setembro de 1965. Câmara
dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 2006. Lei da Mata Atlântica: lei Federal 11428 de 22 de dezembro de 2006.
Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Costanza R., d'Arge R., Groot R., Farber S., Grasso M., Hannon B., Limburg K., Naeem
S., O'Neill R.V., Paruelo J., Raskin R.G., Sutton P., Belt M., 1997. The value of the
world's ecosystem services and natural capital . Nature, 387: 253-260.
Daily G.C., 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems.
Island Press, Washington.
Ditt E.H., Knight J., Ghazoul J., Padua C.V., 2006. Legislation to protect Atlantic
Forest landscapes in Southeastern Brazil: incentives, opportunities and obstacles. 5TH
European Conference on Ecological Restoration. Greifswald, Germany.
Eade J.D.O., Moran D., 1996. Spatial Economic Valuation: Benefits Transfer using
Geographical Information Systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 48(2):97110.
Extrema, 2005. Lei Municipal 2100, de 21 de dezembro de 2005. Câmara Municipal,
Extrema.
Fadini A.A.B., Carvalho P.F., 2004. Os Usos da Água do Moinho: Um estudo na Bacia
Hidrográfica do Ribeirão do Moinho. Annals of the II Encontro Nacional da Associaço
Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Campinas.
Furtado J.I.R., Kishor N., Rao G.V., Wood C., 1999. Global Climate Change and
Bidiversity: Challenges for the Future and the Way Ahead. WBI Working Papers.
World Bank Institute, Washington.
26
Guo Z., Xiao X., Gan Y., Zheng Y., 2001. Ecosystem functions, services and their
values - a case study in Xingshan County of China. Ecological Economics, 38(1):141154.
Hoeffel J.L., Fadini A.A.B., Machado M.K., Lima F.B., 2006. Conservation Units,
Tourism, and Environmental Impacts in the Bragantina Region, São Paulo, Brazil. In:
Harmon D. (Ed.), 2006. People, Places, and Parks: Proceedings of the 2005 George
Wright Society Conference on Parks, Protected Areas, and Cultural Sites. Hancock,
Michigan: The George Wright Society.
Kosoy N., Martinez-Tuna M., Muradian R., Martinez-Alier J., 2007. Payments for
environmental services in watersheds: Insights from a comparative study of three cases
in Central America. Ecological Economics, 61(2-3):446-455.
Martins F.R., 1993. Estrutura de Uma Floresta Mesófila. Editora da Unicamp,
Campinas.
Mattos L., Faleiro A., Pereira C., 2001. Uma proposta alternativa para o
desenvolvimento da produção familiar rural da Amazonia: o caso do Proambiente. IV
Encontro Nacional da Sociedade Brasileira de Economia Ecológica. ECOECO, Belém.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2000. Ecosystems and Human Well being: A
Framework for Assessment. Island Press, Washington.
Morellato L.P.C., Haddad C.F.B., 2000. Introduction: The Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
Biotropica, 32(4B):786-792.
Motta, R.S., 1997. Manual para valoração econômica dos recursos naturais. Instituto de
Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada & Ministério do Meio Ambiente, dos Recursos Hídricos
e da Amazônia Legal, Rio de Janeiro.
Myers N., Mittermeier R.A., Mittermeier C.G., Da Fonseca G.A.B., Kent J. 2000.
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772):853-858.
Pagiola S., Arcenas A., Platais G., 2005. Can Payments for Environmental Services
Help Reduce Poverty? An Exploration of the Issues and the Evidence to Date from
Latin America. World Development, 33(2):237-253.
27
Pearce D., Moran D., 1994. The economic Value of Biodiversity. Earthscan
Publications Ltd, London.
Pearce D., Atkinson G., Mourato S., 2006. Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment:
recent developments. OECD, Paris.
Rosa H., Kandel S., Dimas L., 2004. Compensation for environmental services and rural
communities: lessons from the Americas. International Forestry Review, 6(2):187-194.
Troy A., Wilson, M.A., 2006. Mapping ecosystem services: Practical challenges and
opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer. Ecological Economics, 60: 435-449.
Whately M., Cunha P., 2007. Cantareira 2006: um olhar sobre o maior manancial de
água da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo.
Yu C.M., 2004. Sequestro florestal do carbono no Brasil: dimensões políticas
socioeconômicas e ecológicas. In: Sanqueta, C. et al. (Eds.) Fixação de carbono:
Atualidades, projetos e pesquisas. Laboratório de Inventário Florestal – UFPR/ Instituto
Ecoplan, Curitiba.
28
CHAPTER 2
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE INTERVENTIONS IN
THE ATLANTIC FOREST LANDSCAPE AROUND THE
ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR, SOUTH-EASTERN BRAZIL.
2.1 Introduction
Since the European colonizations of the 16th century, a succession of habitat degradation
has occurred in the Atlantic Forest. Expansion of coffee plantations, mining,
urbanization, industrialization and tourism were some of these forces (Dean, 1996).
Their establishment was normally been influenced by policies driven by the perception
of economic gains associated with changes in land use, without considering the
environmental impacts.
Environmental planning approaches are urgently needed to provide quick responses to
policies that can reverse these tendencies by stimulating sound land uses (Santos, 2004).
This necessity is most evident in regions that abound in unspoilt natural areas but are
also highly populated by humans and thus vulnerable to disturbances. One example is
the region surrounding the Atibainha reservoir (the area of this study) in the eastern part
of São Paulo State. Water resources and remnants of Atlantic Forest are abundant in this
region, but are particularly vulnerable to degradation due to the proximity of 16 million
inhabitants of the great Sao Paulo (Braga, 2001).
The development of innovative and effective approaches to environmental planning
requires understanding of the policies that have been implemented to date and the gaps
in availability of local information. Some of the most important themes explored in
previous studies in this region include: the effects of the construction of the Atibainha
reservoir on the lives of local inhabitants (Rodrigues, 1999; Fadini & Carvalho, 2004),
environmental impacts derived from the duplication of a highway (São Paulo, 1998a),
challenges of policy and sustainable management of the Cantareira Water System,
which includes the Atibainha reservoir (Braga, 2001; Braga, 2004; Whately & Cunha,
2007), subsidies for developing environmental education strategies (Hoeffel et al.,
29
2004), the role of protected areas (Hoeffel et al., 2006a), management plans of water
resources (CBH-PCJ, 2003; São Paulo, 2005a), and priority areas for biodiversity
conservation in Atlantic Forest remnants (Conservation International do Brasil et al.,
2000).
Some of the most important gaps in the information that is crucial for land use planning
in the region of the Atibainha reservoir refer to: i) integration of knowledge about past,
current and future driving forces of conservation and degradation of landscapes; ii)
small-scale spatial representation of biophysical features for research and policy uses;
and iii) characterization of land users and their role in conservation of Atlantic Forest
and water resources. The current study aims to contribute to filling these gaps through a
discussion about the themes mentioned above and through the use of geographic
information systems for an integrated description of social and environmental variables
that must be considered for planning interventions in the landscape.
30
2.2 The Atlantic Forest around the Atibainha reservoir
The Atlantic Forest historically covered 1.3 million square kilometres. This corresponds
to 15% of Brazil (Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica et al., 1998). Its distribution coincides
with the lands where the European colonization begun 500 years ago: coastal areas from
south to north-eastern Brazil and inland areas in the south (figure 2.1). Since the period
of colonization more than 93% of these forests have been cleared (Morellato, 2000).
Due to an exceptional concentration of endemic species, the Atlantic Forest is one of 25
world hotspots (Myers et al., 2000) and because of the extraordinary loss of habitat, it is
a key region for study.
Two main types of vegetation predominate in the Atlantic Forest: entire dense broadleaved evergreen rainforest in coastal areas and seasonal semi-deciduous forest in inland
regions (Veloso et al., 2001). A few pristine forests composed entirely of the former
type of vegetation are still found in relatively large protected areas such as the Serra do
Mar State Park in São Paulo State. The second type of vegetation no longer exists in its
pristine state. Its occurrence is restricted to small fragments of forests. In São Paulo
State, for instance, the largest fragment of semi-deciduous forest is Morro do Diabo
State Park, with 36,000 hectares. The remaining fragments are smaller than 10,000
hectares (Ditt, 2002).
The remaining Atlantic Forest in Brazil occupies less than 100,000 square kilometres
and it remains vulnerable to degradation from the more than 100 million people in
approximately 3,000 cities within its distribution (Morellato, 2000).
Nazaré Paulista, where the Atibainha reservoir is primarily located, has a relatively
small population of approximately 15,000 inhabitants. Fragments of seasonal semideciduous forests occupy approximately 40% of its area (IPT, 2007). Putative reasons
for the high proportion of forest cover in this region (compared to the average of 7% of
remaining Atlantic Forest in Brazil as a whole) are the limitations for expansion of
agriculture due to hilly slopes and the legal restrictions for land use changes due to the
presence of the Atibainha water reservoir.
Despite these restrictions, severe changes in land use and threats to the conservation of
the remaining forest fragments are likely to occur in the next decade due to
anthropogenic disturbances associated with the more than 16 million inhabitants of São
31
Paulo and its surrounding cities, which occur within 100 kilometres of Nazaré Paulista
(Hoeffel et al., 2006b).
Figure 2.1 Maps of reservoirs in the Cantareira System, State of São Paulo, and original
distribution of Atlantic Forest in Brazil.
32
2.3 The Cantareira System
To avoid water shortages expected from the rapid and unplanned growth of
metropolitan São Paulo, the government began constructing the Cantareira Water
Supply System in the 1960s (Braga, 2001). This system is formed by 6 reservoirs:
Jaguari, Jacareí, Cachoeira, Atibainha, Paiva-Castro and Águas Claras. The
management and water use from the reservoirs is administered by the Sabesp water
company following regulations known as “outorga do Sistema Cantareira”. By
observing these regulations, Sabesp may take up to 31,000 litres of water per second for
supplying demands in the metropolitan region of São Paulo and up to 5,000 litres of
water per second for supplying demands of the basins of the rivers Piracicaba, Capivari
and Jundiaí (Whately & Cunha, 2007).
The relationship between forest presence, quality and availability of water in watersheds
is widely recognized (Lima & Zakia, 2006). Therefore preventing future land use
changes around the reservoirs is crucial for the continued use of water by Sabesp.
Since the Cantareira System was inaugurated in 1973, the population of metropolitan
São Paulo has increased from 6 million to 19 million inhabitants. The lands around
Cantareira System are perceived by these people as potential residencial alternatives to
the metropolitan areas. Consequently, the urban areas here increased by 33.5% from
1989 to 2003 (Whately & Cunha, 2007).
These numbers reinforce the need to develop land-use policies and management that
integrate the interests of different stakeholders, while promoting sound land uses. A
possible reference for the development of such strategies is the New York water supply
system. It is recognized worldwide as a result of successful land use policies that
integrate various mechanisms, such as land acquisition, conservation easements, buffer
zones, and land trusts, based on the understanding that investing in planning and
managing watershed to ensure sound land uses is more convenient than investing only
in systems for filtering the water (Pires, 2004; Dudley & Stolton, 2003).
Similarly, the diversity of land uses and land users in the Cantareira region requires
diverse and integrated approaches for ensuring the maintenance of practices that do not
jeopardize the quality and availability of water and further the conservation of natural
resources in Atlantic Forest remnants.
33
2.4 Legal rules of conservation
The current regulations for use and conservation of natural resources around the
Atibainha reservoir can be grouped into three themes: protected areas, forests, and
water. A description of the main components of the legislation according to these
themes is presented in the following paragraphs.
2.4.1 Protected Areas
Environmental Protected Areas (EPAs) known as “APA” in Portuguese, are one of the
various categories of Brazilian protected areas. EPAs can be created by municipalities,
state, or federal governments to ensure human welfare and improve ecological
conditions by restricting: i) pollutant industries that may affect water resources; ii)
movements of lands and opening of channels; iii) activities that cause soil erosion; and
iv) threats to species of local biota (Brasil, 1981).
The Atibainha reservoir and the surrounding land are located in an area where two
EPAs overlap. These are named “Sistema Cantareira”, and “Piracicaba/Juqueri-Mirim”
(São Paulo, 2001). Although these EPAs were created through State laws (São Paulo,
1986; São Paulo, 1991; São Paulo, 1998b), currently they are not effective because no
regulations have officially been approved for specifying restrictions to be applied
(Whately & Cunha, 2007). The official approval of such regulations may occur in the
future through a Decree of law to be signed by the State governor.
2.4.2 Forests
The Brazilian Forest Code is a federal law that promotes conservation of forest in areas
designated as “legal reserves” (LR) and “Permanent Preservation Areas” (PPA). The
rules for defining LR and PPA vary according to region. In the southern region where
the Atibainha reservoir is located, legal reserves correspond to 20% of the area of every
rural property that must be retained as a forest reserve.
According to the Forest Code, the legal reserves must be registered and specified in
ownership documents (Brasil, 1965). However, the majority of landowners in Nazaré
Paulista have not yet defined their legal reserves.
Although the clearing of forests is prohibited in legal reserves, the Forest Code states
that these forests are suitable for commercial exploitation. Such exploitation can be
34
permitted if the landowners submit management plans for approval by a state
environmental agency.
Permanent Preservation Areas refer to shore areas of 30 metres on both banks of rivers
and streams, 100 metres around the shore of reservoirs, areas with a slope greater than
45 degrees, and mountaintops (defined as the area above 2/3 of the total altitude of the
mountains).
In addition to the Forest Code, there is another law that protects the remaining forests in
Nazaré Paulista. It is known as “Atlantic Forest Law” (Brasil, 2006). This was approved
in 2006 and updates Decree 750 (Brasil, 1993), which has contributed to the prevention
of Atlantic Forest since 1993. The Atlantic Forest law restricts suppression of
vegetation in primary forests or secondary forests classified as being in a medium or
advanced stage of regeneration, including those located outside LR and PPA. Criteria
for such classification include analysis of forest physiognomy and the diameter class
and heights of trees (Brasil & São Paulo, 1994).
2.4.3 Water
The Piracicaba, Capivari, and Jundiaí rivers are the main components of the PCJ basin,
which is one of the most important watersheds in the state of São Paulo and also where
the Atibainha reservoir is located. Rivers in the PCJ basin are either federal or state
domains. Therefore, an adequate management of water resources in the PCJ watershed
depends on the integration of federal and state policies.
In 1997 the National Policy of Water Resources (NPWR) was implemented and the
National System of Management of Water Resources (NSMWR) was created through
federal law 9433, which is known as the “Law of Waters” (Brasil, 1997). The objectives
of the NSMWR are listed in table 2.1. The NPWR is provided with the instruments
listed in table 2.2 for achieving its objectives. The components of the NSMWR are
listed in table 2.3 with their respective tasks. One of these components is the National
Council of Water Resources (NCWR), whose tasks include the establishment of general
criteria for charging for the use of water.
Ceará, in northeastern Brazil, was the first state to implement a system of charging for
the use of water following the approval of the federal Law of Waters. The second
implementation of this system occurred in 2005 in the Paraíba do Sul watershed, which
is a river of federal domains in Rio de Janeiro State.
35
The NCWR issued Resolution 48, which specifies criteria to be adopted in the
establishment of systems for charging for water use (CNRH, 2005a). This resolution
sought to replicate the Paraíba do Sul model in other Brazilian watersheds (Weis,
2005). Charging for water use in rivers of federal domains in the PCJ watershed was
subsequently approved through Resolution 52 of the NCWR (CNRH, 2005b). Federal
charging for the use of water from the PCJ basin began in January 2006 (CBH-PCJ,
2006).
State policies have evolved to be compatible with the federal water charges in São
Paulo. Guidelines for a State Policy of Water Resources were established in 1991 by
State Law 7663 (São Paulo, 1991). In 2005 Law 12183 was approved, establishing
charges for the use of water in state rivers (São Paulo, 2005b). Criteria and rules for
such charges were specified by the Decree 50667 (São Paulo, 2006), which was signed
by the State governor in 2006 and became active in 2007.
The price for each cubic metre of water from state and federal rivers, established by
Resolution 52 of the NCWR, is R$0.02 (CNRH, 2005b). This revenue is transferred to
FEHIDRO – the State Fund of Water Resources, which is responsible for approval and
financing of projects according to guidelines of the watershed plans and to the
objectives and goals of the State Plan of Water Resources. Private and public
institutions may apply for grants from FEHIDRO through projects related to 8 themes,
designated as “Continuous Duration Programs” by the Resolution 55 of the NCWR
(CNRH, 2005c). These are listed in table 2.4.
Table 2.1 Objectives of the National Policy of Water Resources (NPWR) and the National System of
Management of Water Resources (NSMWR)
NPWR
NSMWR
•
ensuring availability of water with good
quality for current and future
generations;
•
coordinating integrated management of
waters; managing conflicts related to
water resources;
•
rational and integrated use of water
resources, according to principles of
sustainable development;
•
implementing the NPWR;
•
planning, regulating and controlling the
use, preservation and recovery of water
resources;
•
promoting charge for the use of water
resources.
•
preventing hydrological problems
associated to natural causes or to
inadequate use of natural resources.
36
Table 2.2 Instruments of the National Policy of Water Resources with their respective applicability.
Instruments
Applicability
Water resources plan
Diagnosis of current status of water resources;
Analysis of alternative demographic growth, productive systems, and
changes in land use;
Analysis of availability and future demands for water, and potential
conflicts;
Establishment of goals of rational use, increase, and improvement of
quality of water resources;
Development of actions, programs and projects for achieving their
goals;
Priorities for permitting (“outorga”) the use of water resources;
Criteria for charging for the use of water resources;
Proposals to create areas with restrictions of land use for protection of
water resources.
Classification of water bodies
according to preponderant uses
of water
Ensuring compatibility of the quality of water with their designated use;
Permission (Outorga) for the
use of water resources
Capturing water from water bodies or underground aquifers for
consumption, including supplying public demand or productive
systems;
Preventive actions for reducing costs to mitigate water pollution.
Rules about delivering sewage in water bodies;
Hydroelectric uses;
Other uses that affect quality and availability of water.
Charging use of water
resources
Recognizing economic value of water;
Incentive to rational use of water;
Funds for programs and interventions within water resources plan.
System of information of
water resources
Consolidate and divulge data and information about status of water
resources;
Updating information about availability and demand of water resources
across the country;
Subsidising the elaboration of water resources plans.
(Source: Brasil, 1997).
37
Table 2.3 Institutions that compose the National System of Management of Water Resources, and
their respective tasks according to the federal laws 9433/1997 and 9984/2000.
Institution
National Council of
Water Resources
National Agency of
Waters
State and Federal
District Councils of
Water Resources
Watershed
Committees
Federal, State, and
Municipal agencies
related to management
of water resources
Water Agencies
Tasks stated by federal laws 9433 (Brasil, 1997) and 9984 (Brasil, 2000)
Promoting articulation of national, state, and regional planning of water resources with their users;
Judging “in definitive” conflicts among State Councils of Water Resources;
Deliberating about issues submitted by the State Councils of Water Resources or by the Watershed Committees;
Analysing proposals of changes in legislation about water resources and the NPWR;
Establishing complementary guidelines for: i) implementation of the NPWR, ii) use of tools of the NPWR, and iii)
actions of the NSMWR;
Approving proposals for the establishment of watershed committees, and establishing general criteria for elaboration
of their rules;
Accompanying and approving the National Plan of Water Resources;
Establishing general criteria for permitting the use of water (“outorga”) and for charging for its use.
Supervising, controlling, and evaluating actions and activities determined by federal legislation about water resources;
Establishing rules for implementation, controlling and evaluation of tools of the NPWR;
Permitting (“outorga”) the use of water resources of federal domains;
Surveillance the use of water resources in water bodies under federal domains;
Elaborating technical studies for supporting the National Council of Water Resources in the definition of values to be
charged for the use of water resources of federal domains, according to mechanisms suggested by watershed
committees;
Stimulating the creation of watershed committees;
Articulation with watershed committees for charging for the use of water resources;
Collection and distribution of resources originated from the charge for the use of water resources;
Supporting states and municipalities through planning and promoting actions for preventing and reducing effects of
drought and flooding;
Promoting studies that subsidize the use of federal resources in works and services of regularization of water bodies,
use and distribution of water, and controlling water pollution, as determined by the water resources plans;
Defining and surveillance conditions of operation of the reservoirs, looking for ensuring multiple use of water
resources as determined by the water resources plans;
Promoting and coordinating activities of the national hydro meteorological network, articulated with the associated
agencies and institutions;
Organizing, implementing and managing the National System of Information of Water Resources;
Stimulating research and capacity building for the management of water resources;
Supporting the state governments in the creation of agencies for management of water resources;
Proposing to the National Council of Water Resources the establishment of incentives to the conservation of water
resources.
No attribution is stated in the laws 9433/1997 and 9984/2000.
Promoting debates about issues related to water resources, and articulating actions of the institutions;
“Preliminary” judging of conflicts related to water resources;
Approving water resources plan of the watershed;
Accompanying the development of water resources plan of the watershed and suggesting the necessary providences
for achieving its goals;
Proposing to the National and State Councils exemption of permission (“outorga”) in circumstances of low
expressiveness of accumulation, derivation, capturing of water, and waste delivering;
Establishing mechanisms for charging the use of water and suggesting values to be charged;
Establishing criteria and promoting sharing of costs of works of multiple use.
No attribution is stated in the laws 9433/1997 and 9984/2000.
Maintaining an updated balance of the availability of water resources in their respective region;
Maintaining records of users of water resources;
Charging consumers for the use of water resources;
Analysing and issuing opinion about projects and works to be funded with resources from charging for the use of
water resources;
Accompanying the financial management of funds raised through the charge for the use of water resources;
Managing the System of Information of Water Resources;
Developing contracts for financing and services;
Elaborating and submitting budget proposal to the respective watershed committee;
Promoting the necessary studies for the management of water resources in their respective area;
Elaborating the Water Resources Plan for appreciation by the respective watershed committee;
Proposing to the watershed committee: i) classification of the water bodies, ii) values to be charged for the use of
water resources, iii) plan of use of the resources raised through the charge for the use of water resources, and iv)
sharing the costs of works of multiple uses.
38
Table 2.4 Themes of “Continuous Duration Programs” (CDP) determined by the National Council
of Water Resources (CNRH, 2005c).
Designation
Theme
CDP 1
Database, data records, surveys and studies
CDP2
Management of water resources
CDP3
Recovering quality of water bodies
CDP4
Conservation and protection of water bodies
CDP5
Promoting rational use of water resources
CDP6
Multiple use of water resources
CDP7
Preventing and defending against extreme hydrologic events
CDP8
Technical capacity building, environmental education and social
communication
39
2.5 Partitioning landscape for environmental planning at a local scale
There is no single correct spatial scale for diagnosing ecosystems or landscapes.
Environmental issues can only be partially comprehended if only one scale of analysis
is adopted (Santos, 2004). Therefore, combining approaches of various scales can
increase the effectiveness of plans of interventions in the landscape for conserving
natural resources.
The previous sections refer to some studies that consist of analyses in a broad scale of
threats and opportunities to conserve the Atlantic Forest and water resources in the
region where the Atibainha reservoir is located. These studies have been crucial for the
development of policy guidelines. For instance, broad scale studies of forces of
landscape transformations around water reservoirs, demands of water supply, and
degradation of remnants of forest, have resulted in the creation of environmental
protected areas, the elaboration of the Law of Waters, and the establishment of forest
legislation, respectively. These studies and policies can be improved through the
adoption of fine scale approaches of interpretation of the environment.
2.5.1 Catchment delineation
Analyses at a fine scale can be developed through partitioning the landscape according
to patterns of biophysical features. One possible form of such partitioning is through
delineation of drainage areas according to slope. This approach was adopted in the
current study through the following procedures:
i.
Contour lines at intervals of 10 metres from topographic maps produced by
the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 1978) of
approximately 20,000 hectares around the Atibainha reservoir were
digitized, using the software ArcMap (Esri, 2002).
ii.
The digitized contour lines were used to produce a digital elevation model
(DEM).
iii.
Stream segments were created from the resulting DEM, using Arc Hydro
(Maidment, 2002) which is a geospatial data model for water resources that
operates within ArcMap. For defining the beginning of the streams a
threshold upstream drainage area of 0.25 square kilometers was used.
40
iv.
Catchments were delineated from the confluences of all the stream segments
that have been created. A polygon shapefile was generated in ArcMap,
consisting of a GIS layer that represents the delineation of catchments.
v.
The boundaries of the Atibainha reservoir indicated in the maps of IBGE
(1978) were digitized in ArcMap.
vi.
The GIS layer of the Atibainha reservoir was used to clip the polygon
shapefile of catchments, using the Geoprocessing Wizard of ArcMap.
vii.
The obtained clipped catchments adjacent to the Atibainha reservoir were
selected as the target areas of the current study.
This process of partitioning the landscape resulted in the delineation of 188 catchments
(figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2 Delineation of catchments for a fine scale analysis of landscape around the Atibainha
reservoir.
41
2.5.2 Mapping land uses
The utility of partitioning the landscape into catchments for a refined scale of
environmental planning depends on the availability of information that can be assigned
to each catchment. Relevant information can be assigned to the catchments if land uses
are mapped. Some of the main land uses in the catchments around the Atibainha
reservoir were mapped in this study. Procedures for mapping land uses consisted of
stereoscopy and visual interpretation of aerial photographs of the study area taken in
2003 at a scale of 1:20,000, accompanied by the construction of a polygon shapefile in
ArcMap (Esri, 2002). Further adjustments were made through ground truth verification
and consultation of documents produced by the Technological Research Institute (IPT,
2007). The resulting map of land use is illustrated in figure 2.3.
2.5.3 Land users and conservation of forest and water resources
The identification of land users with their respective spatial domains is an important
complement to the map of land uses for characterizing the landscape in a local scale.
This information is necessary for comprehending the driving forces of landscape
change. Moreover,it is helpful for planning mechanisms to stimulate sound land uses.
Analysis of aerial photographs, consultation of technical reports (IPT, 2007), and
collection of information in the water company (Sabesp), enabled the recognition of five
main categories of land users in the catchments around the Atibainha reservoir: the
water company (Sabesp); cattle ranchers; eucalyptus farmers; owners of hotels; and
households. The areas of these different land users are indicated on the map in figure
2.3 and summarized in Appendix 2.1.
Sabesp holds more than 1,500 hectares of lands in the study area. These lands were
acquired by the state government in the 1960s for the establishment of the reservoir and
some buffer zones in its margins. Native forests occupy approximately 60% of these
lands. Despite the fact that they do not constitute forest reserves, deforestation is
supposed to be more restricted in these areas than in privately owned areas because they
are officially designated to protect water resources. Even the pastures, that constitute the
remaining 40% of Sabesp’s areas, will probably not be converted into other non forest
uses. They are likely to be maintained or in some cases to be converted into native
forest through natural regeneration or through projects of forest restoration (Sabesp,
personal communication).
42
Sabesp owns only 20% of the total area of the catchments, i.e. most of the lands (80%)
that should be destined for buffering the reservoir in order to ensure protection of the
water resources are privately owned. More than 2,000 hectares are pasture for cattle
ranching, which is the main economic activity in the region. Cattle ranchers prevent
regeneration of native forests in their lands to ensure the maintenance of pastures for the
cattle.
One tenth of the study area, i.e. more than 700 hectares, are currently owned by
eucalyptus farmers. The proportion of land occupied by eucalyptus is expected to
increase in the following decade because environmental conditions of Nazaré Paulista
are highly suitable for cultivation of eucalyptus and there is an increasing demand for
wood in the region. Besides the cultivation of eucalyptus, tourism has also been
increasing in the region. There are 25 hotels in Nazaré Paulista and many of them are
located near the Atibainha reservoir. Although there are only 120 hectares of lands
under hotel ownership in the study area, tourism activities are dependent on the
maintenance of forest cover on others’ lands because of the scenic beauty associated
with the presence of remnants of Atlantic Forest near the reservoir is a key attraction for
tourists.
The scenic beauty is also one of the main reasons for the building of houses that covers
approximately 650 hectares of land. These areas are composed mainly of residential
housing in urban areas or in areas that are in the process of urbanization, and residences
that are used as country weekend houses by people from large towns such as São Paulo.
The hotels and houses have the potential to eliminate one of the main reasons for their
establishment in Nazaré Paulista, which is the presence of forest and water resources.
Therefore, the sustainability of economic activities associated with tourism in hotels and
the continued attractiveness of the houses depend on successful landscape planning in
order to ensure environmental conservation.
43
2.6 Opportunities for sound interventions in the landscape: conclusions
Considerable advances have been achieved in policies of land use and conservation of
water and Atlantic Forest in the Cantareira System. The Forest Code, the Atlantic Forest
Law, the Law of Waters, and the institutional arrangements for charging for the use of
water resources are some of the results already obtained from these efforts. The
effectiveness of the policies that have been developed to date depends on paying
attention to specific details relevant to the environment at the local scale. For instance,
the optimal use of financial resources raised from payments for the use of water
resources depends on understanding the local pressure resulting in the degradation of
water and forests.
Some land users such as cattle ranchers may be more interested in keeping their land
clear to increase the carrying capacity for livestock. Others, such as owners of hotels
may prefer to conserve the forests because of the scenic beauty that can be provided for
their guests. The water company must have the interest in the preservation of forests
around the reservoir for preventing sedimentation, whereas the eucalyptus farmers can
wish to clear land of native forests to implement their plantations. If these issues, which
relate to opportunity costs of alternative land uses, are ignored the policies are likely to
fail.
The following conclusions and recommendations can be derived from the issues
discussed in the previous sections of this chapter:
•
Efforts to promote enforcement of forest laws are crucial for ensuring the
conservation of remaining fragments of Atlantic Forest around the Atibainha
reservoir;
•
Regulations must be developed and officially approved for the management of
the Environmental Protected Areas
(EPA) “Sistema Cantareira” and
“Piracicaba/Juqueri-Mirim” ;
•
Rules for using financial resources from the charge for use of water can be
improved through understanding forces of degradation in a local scale;
•
The small catchments delineated in the study area can help to analyze the
landscape at a fine scale for environmental planning;
44
•
The fine scale approaches of landscape planning being developed in the lands
around the Atibainha reservoir should be adapted for a replication to the other
areas of the Cantareira System;
•
Successful policies to conserve water and forest resources require diverse and
integrated approaches, i.e. there is not only one single solution or strategy.
Therefore, command-and-control mechanisms based on the current legislation
can be combined with economic incentive mechanisms, as well as with other
conservation strategies such as environmental education and technical support to
decision makers.
Figure 2.3. Land uses and land users around the Atibainha reservoir.
45
2.7 References
Braga B., 2001. Integrated urban water resources management: A challenge into the
21st century. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 17(4):581-99.
Braga B., 2004. Estudo Técnico: Subsídios para a análise do pedido de outorga do
Sistema Cantareira e para a definição das condições de operação dos seus reservatórios.
ANA – Agência Nacional de Águas, São Paulo.
Brasil, 1965. Codigo Florestal Brasileiro: lei 4.771 de 15 de setembro de 1965. Câmara
dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 1981. Lei Federal 6902 de 27 de abril de 1981. Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 1993. Decreto 750 de 10 de fevereiro de 1993. Governo Federal, Brasília.
Brasil, 1997. Lei 9433 de 08 de janeiro de 1997. Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 2000. Lei 9984 de 17 de julho de 2000. Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 2006. Lei da Mata Atlântica: lei Federal 11428 de 22 de dezembro de 2006.
Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, São Paulo, 1994. Resolução conjunta 01, de 17 de fevereiro de 1994. Intituto
Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis & Secretaria de Meio
Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, Brasília.
CBH-PCJ, 2003. Plano de Bacia Hidrográfica 2000-2003: Síntese do Relatório Final.
Comitê das Bacias Hidrográficas dos Rios Piracicaba, Capivari e Jundiaí, Americana.
CBH-PCJ, 2006. Fundamentos da Cobrança pelo Uso dos Recursos Hídricos nas Bacias
PCJ. Comitê das Bacias Hidrográficas dos Rios Piracicaba, Capivari e Jundiaí,
Americana.
CNRH, 2005a Resolução 48, de 21 de marçi de 2005. Conselho Nacional dos Recursos
Hídricos, Brasília.
CNRH, 2005b Resolução 52, de 28 de novembro de 2005. Conselho Nacional dos
Recursos Hídricos, Brasília.
46
CNRH, 2005c Resolução 55, de 28 de novembro de 2005. Conselho Nacional dos
Recursos Hídricos, Brasília.
Conservation International do Brasil, Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica, Fundação
Biodiversitas, IPÊ – Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas, Secretaria do Meio Ambiente do
Estado de São Paulo, Instituto Estadual de Florestas – MG, 2000. Avaliação e Ações
Prioritárias para a Conservação da Biodiversidade dos Biomas Mata Atlântica e Campos
Sulinos. Brasília, Probio – Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brasília.
Dean W., 1996. A Ferro e Fogo: a história e a devastação da mata atlântica brasileira.
Companhia das Letras, São Paulo.
Ditt E.H., 2002. Fragmentos Florestais no Pontal do Paranapanema. Ed. Annablume,
São Paulo.
Dudley N., Stolton S., 2003. Running Pure: The importance of forest protected areas to
drinking water. World Bank/WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable
Use, Washington.
ESRI, 2002. ArcMap version 8.3. ESRI, Redlands.
Fadini A.A.B., Carvalho P.F., 2004. Os Usos da Água do Moinho: Um estudo na Bacia
Hidrográfica do Ribeirão do Moinho. Annals of the II Encontro Nacional da Associaço
Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Campinas.
Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica, INPE, ISA, 1998. Atlas da evolução dos remanescentes
florestais e ecossistemas associados no domínio da Mata Atlântica no período 19901995. Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica, São Paulo.
Hoeffel J.L., Fadini A.A.B., Suarez C.F.S., 2004. Meio Ambiente, Comunidade Local e
Extensão Universitária - Prática Interdisciplinar na Universidade São Francisco, SP.
Annals of the 2º Congresso Brasileiro de Extensão Universitária, Belo Horizonte.
Hoeffel J.L., Fadini A.A.B., Machado M.K., Lima F.B., 2006a. Conservation Units,
Tourism, and Environmental Impacts in the Bragantina Region, São Paulo, Brazil. In:
Harmon, David, (ed.) People, Places, and Parks: Proceedings of the 2005 George
47
Wright Society Conference on Parks, Protected Areas, and Cultural Sites. The George
Wright Society, Hancock.
Hoeffel J.L., Fadini A.A.B., Machado M.K., Reis J.C., 2006b. Percepção Ambiental e
Conflitos de Uso dos Recursos Naturais - Um Estudo na APA do Sistema Cantareira,
São Paulo, Brasil. Annals of the III Encontro Nacional da Associaço Nacional de PósGraduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Brasília.
IBGE, 1978. Cartas topográficas do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística.
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Rio de Janeiro.
IPT, 2007. Plano Diretor de Nazaré Paulista: Parecer Técnico 11.501-301. Instituto de
Pesquisas Técnológicas, São Paulo.
Lima W.P., Zakia M.J.B, 2006. O papel do ecossistema ripário. In: Lima W.P., Zakia
M.J.B., As Florestas Plantadas e a Água. Rima Editora, São Paulo
Maidment D.R., 2002. Arc-Hydro: GIS for water resources. ESRI, Austin.
Morellato L.P.C., Haddad C.F.B., 2000. Introduction: The Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
Biotropica, 32(4B):786-92.
Myers N, Mittermeier R.A., Mittermeier C.G., Da Fonseca G.A.B., Kent J., 2000.
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772):853-8.
Pires M., 2004. Watershed protection for a world city: the case of New York. Land Use
Policy, 21: 161-175.
Rodrigues C.M.C., 1999. Águas aos olhos de Santa Luzia. Ed. Unicamp, Campinas.
Santos R. F., 2004. Planejamento Ambiental: teoria e prática. Oficina de Textos, São
Paulo.
São Paulo, 1986. Lei estadual 5280 de 04 de setembro de 1986. Assembléia Legislativa,
São Paulo.
São Paulo, 1991. Lei estadual 7438 d 16 de julho de 1991. Assembléia Legislativa, São
Paulo.
48
São Paulo, 1998a. Entre Serras e Águas: Relatório de qualidade ambiental. n°4.
Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, São Paulo.
São Paulo, 1998b. Lei estadual 10.111 de 4 de dezembro de 1998. Assembléia
Legislativa, São Paulo.
São Paulo, 2001. APAS – Áreas de Proteção Ambiental Estaduais: Proteção e
Desenvolvimento em São Paulo. Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, São Paulo.
São Paulo, 2005a. Plano Estadual de Recursos Hídricos 2004-2007. Secretaria de
Energia, Recursos Hídricos e Saneamento, São Paulo.
São Paulo, 2005b. Lei Estadual 12183 de 29 de dezembro de 2005. Assembléia
Legislativa, São Paulo.
São Paulo, 2006. Decreto de lei 50667 de 30 de março de 2006. Governo do Estado, São
Paulo.
Rodrigues C.M.C., 1999. Águas aos olhos de Santa Luzia. Ed. Unicamp, Campinas.
Veloso H.P., Rangel-Filho A.L.R., Lima J.C.A., 2001. Classificação da vegetação
brasileira adaptada a um sistema universal. Fundação Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e
Estatística – IBGE, Rio de Janeiro.
Weis B., 2005. Notícias Socioambientais: CNRH tenta estimular a cobrança pelo uso da
água. Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo.
Whately M., Cunha P., 2007. Cantareira 2006: um olhar sobre o maior manancial de
água da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo.
49
CHAPTER 3
DEFYING LEGAL PROTECTION OF ATLANTIC
FOREST IN THE TRANSFORMING LANDSCAPE
AROUND THE ATIBAINHA RESERVOIR, SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL
3.1 Introduction
The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is one of the most threatened biomes in the world with
less than 8% of the original 1,227,000 km2 remaining. Of this, less than 40% is located
within protected areas such as designated nature reserves (Myers et al., 2000; Morellato
and Haddad, 2000). It is, therefore, essential that landscape management and planning is
sensitive to the protection of forest remnants that lie outside officially designated
protected areas to maintain biodiversity of this vulnerable but highly valuable biome
(Cullen et al., 2005).
Continued degradation and clearance of Atlantic Forest outside designated conservation
areas have been in defiance of two important components of Brazilian legislation: the
Forest Code and the Decree of Law 750 (Tabarelli et al., 2005).
The Forest Code, a federal law that was created in 1965, requires the preservation of
forest on “Permanent Preservation Areas” (PPA) and on “legal reserves” (LR). The PPA
refer to forest adjacent to rivers and reservoirs, steep slopes and hilltops (definitions of
these criteria are given in the Methods below), and the LR correspond to 20% of the
area of any rural property.
Delineation of LR must be specified and appended to the ownership documentation of
the land (Brasil, 1965). Although the Forest Code is the highest legal document relating
to forest use, it has not been fully implemented, which has resulted in unplanned
economic development in forested areas, and the creation of a culture where forest is
devalued (Hirakuri, 2003).
From 1993 to 2006, Decree of Law 750 has delineated the domains of Atlantic Forest
and prohibited vegetation destruction where forests were classified as “pristine” forest,
50
or in “medium”, or “advanced” stages of regeneration (Table 3.1). The decree of law
allowed exploitation of ‘pioneer forests’ or forests in the initial stages of regeneration
(Brasil, 1993). The criteria for these different classifications of regeneration stages are
defined by state and federal rules (Secretaria de Meio Ambiente and Ibama, 1994).
In early 2006 the Brazilian senate approved the “Atlantic Forest law”, which is an
upgrade of the Decree of Law, and began to take effect in 2007. According to this law,
the regeneration stage will continue as the single criterion determining what types of
exploitation are permissible, but a “medium stage of regeneration” will place less
restriction on forest conversion than “advanced stage” and “pristine forest”. The article
14 of the law states that forests in medium stage of regeneration can be developed in the
interest of social and public utility (Brasil, 2006).
Penalties for not respecting the Forest Code and the Decree of Law 750 normally
consisted of payment of fines or a commitment to restore a specified amount of forest,
but these are only occasionally enforced and are generally not effective in reducing
exploitation and conserving forest (Tabarelli et al., 2005).
In addition to the preservation of the forest for its biodiversity, protection is also
important to ensure the long term provision of ecosystem services, such as watershed
protection. Forests on riparian lands retain water, as well as sediments and nutrients
from surface water and groundwater draining agricultural areas within catchments
(Turner et al., 2001). The values of these services are not accounted for by the present
systems of ownership and management. Owners of forested land have a variety of land
use options, many of which are economically more attractive than leaving the land
under forest cover.
A clear delineation of management unit boundaries and forest preservation areas is
necessary to ensure that forest ecological functions and values of riparian areas are
maintained within the agricultural landscape (Thenail and Baudry, 2005). However,
several developing countries have limited capacity to generate spatial information for
adequate forest policies and legislation (FAO, 2005).
The lack of consensus in geographic interpretation of forest legislation can be an
important obstacle for the maintenance of ecosystems. In Chile, for instance, judicial
decisions related to conservation are hindered by conflicts of interpretation of laws and
by difficulties to express the laws geographically (Pellet et al., 2005). Similar problems
51
can occur in attempts to enforce the laws to protect remnants of the Brazilian Atlantic
Forest. Therefore, the ability to unambiguously identify areas to which forest laws apply
and, consequently, where they are being ignored or flouted, is a necessary precondition
for not only the enforcement of regulations, but also to inform decision making and
policy on future land use.
Geographic information systems based on remote sensing combined with forest surveys
provides an effective tool for associating clearly-defined areas with relevant forest laws
and management action, and therefore a foundation for improving forest law
enforcement and governance (Kishor & Rosenbaum, 2003). In Sumatra, a time series
analysis of land use maps in GIS allowed the production of habitat threat maps for
prioritisation of areas for management and conservation (Linkie et al., 2004). These
approaches are particularly relevant in areas where land use is changing rapidly, as they
allow for the rapid update of land use changes.
One such landscape that is undergoing rapid change, and where the quantity and quality
of forest cover is as yet poorly defined, comprises the watersheds surrounding the
Atibainha Reservoir, in the eastern region of the State of São Paulo (Fadini and
Carvalho, 2004). The construction of the reservoir in 1973 severely impacted local
agriculturalists because most of the fertile soils were flooded (Rodrigues, 1999). Since
then, they appear to have discounted environmental legislation in their land use
decisions.
Land pressures are exacerbated by the arrival of people from nearby large towns such as
São Paulo and Guarulhos. These people are attracted by the picturesque setting formed
by the reservoir and the opportunities to buy land for building residences. Despite
current environmental regulations, the vulnerability of remnants of Atlantic Forest may
be increasing due to the consequent expansion of urbanized areas.
Using a combination of remote-sensing and ground-truthing, this study aims to: i)
evaluate the extent to which legislation to protect forest remnants has been respected in
the Atibainha Reservoir region; ii) evaluate the legal vulnerability of Atlantic Forest
landscapes to degradation in non-protected areas; and iii) provide recommendations for
research-based policy making.
52
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Study area
The Atibainha Reservoir, in eastern São Paulo State, is one of four interconnected lakes
that supply water for 60% of the people who live in greater São Paulo (Braga, 2001).
The study area comprises the catchments that surround this lake (Figure 3.1). The total
area is 9,647 hectares, which includes 2,006 hectares of the reservoir. Native forest,
eucalyptus plantations, and pastures are the main land uses, although there has been
increasing urbanization in the region through the arrival of new residents that come
from nearby large towns.
Figure 3.1 Study area, composed by catchments that surround the Atibainha reservoir in eastern
São Paulo State.
53
3.2.2 Mapping forests, streams, reservoir and catchments
A map of the land-use mosaic was created using stereoscopy (that gives a sense of depth
to 2-dimensional images) and visual interpretation of 1:20,000-scale aerial photographs
taken in 2003. The mosaic was composed of pastures, eucalyptus plantations, and native
primary and secondary forest. Some variation in texture was found in the native forests
due to variations in their stage of development. Using ground truthing, we were able to
verify that older forest stands had a ‘rougher’ texture in the stereoscopically observed
aerial photographs than younger forests.
We selected two forest fragments that were very different to each other in terms of the
size of their canopies and in their corresponding texture in the aerial photographs. These
were used as reference-types for stands classified as ‘young forest’ (F1) and ‘old forest’
(F2). Each of the remaining fragments of forest in the study area was classified as F1 or
F2, depending on their resemblance to the reference forest types. Therefore, all the
native forests in the study area were classified either as young forest (F1) or as old
forest (F2). The discrimination between F1 and F2 forests was verified by groundtruthing and subsequent statistical analysis of the size and density of trees, as described
below.
A polygon shapefile was created in ArcMap (Esri, 2002) for managing the information
of the mosaic in a Geographic Information System (GIS). Contour lines with intervals
of 10 metres were digitized from topographic maps at a scale of 1:10,000 (IBGE, 1978)
in ArcMap to produce a digital elevation model (DEM). The DEM was used in the
ArcHydro extension of ArcMap for mapping streams and limits of the water reservoir,
and for the delineation of 188 catchments. The threshold area established in ArcHydro
for definition of streams was 0.25 km2, corresponding to 10,000 cells.
3.2.3 Delineation of Permanent Preservation Areas of the Forest Code
The margins of water bodies and steep slopes that make up the Permanent Preservation
Areas (PPA) in the study area were delineated through ArcMap, observing the
following criteria determined by the Forest Code (Brasil, 1965): width of margins along
streams of 30 metres, width of margins around the reservoir in urban areas of 30 metres,
width of margins around the reservoir outside urban areas of 100 metres, steep slopes
that correspond to a slope greater than 45o, and hilltop boundaries defined as the contour
line corresponding to the highest point minus 1/3 of the difference between the highest
point and the lowest point of the hill. Once these criteria were mapped in the GIS it was
54
possible to allocate any point within the study area into one of the following eight
categories of legal restriction for deforestation: i) steep slopes (> 45o), ii) stream
margins, iii) reservoir margins, iv) overlapping stream and reservoir margins, v)
hilltops, vi) stream margins on steep slopes, vii) reservoir margins on steep slopes, and
viii) no restriction for deforestation related to PPA. The proportion of forest cover was
calculated for each category that corresponded to these legal restrictions in each
catchment.
3.2.4 Delineation of areas targeted by Decree of Law 750 and by Atlantic Forest law
Within the list of parameters recommended by State and Federal governments to
determine regeneration stages of Atlantic Forest fragments (Secretaria de Meio
Ambiente and Ibama, 1994), quantitative and measurable criteria were selected to
delineate areas protected by Decree of Law 750 and by the Atlantic Forest Law. These
criteria are based on the height and diameter at breast height (DBH) of trees, and are
presented in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Criteria based on height and diameter of trees determined by official rules of the State
and Federal governments to classify the stage of regeneration as “Advanced”, “Medium”, “Initial”,
and “Pioneer” (Secretaria de Meio Ambiente and Ibama, 1994). Obs: criteria for definition of high,
medium and low amplitude of diameters are not expressed in the official rules of government.
Stage of regeneration
Height of trees
Diameter of trees
Advanced
Greater than 10 m
Higher than 20 cm, with high
amplitude
Medium
From 4 to 12 m
Up to 20 cm, with moderate amplitude
and predominance of small diameters
Initial
From 1.5 to 8 m
Up to 10 cm, with low amplitude
Pioneer
Up to 2 m
Around 2 cm
Ten areas of F1 forest and ten of F2 forest were randomly selected for field sampling of
vegetation. The quarter point method (Martins, 1993) was used to collect data for the
following variables: height of trees, diameter of their trunks at 1.30m above ground, and
distance of the trees from the centre of the quadrants. Twenty sampling points were
established in each area. Each sampling point was composed of four quadrants, giving
80 quadrants and 80 measured trees.
Multiple logistic regression analysis (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1989; Quinn & Keough,
2002) was performed using Statistica (StatSoft, 2001) for evaluating the variables
55
mentioned above as predictors of the classes of forests F1 and F2. When significant
results were found in the logistic regression model the individual effects of the predictor
variables were assessed subsequently through removing each of these variables from the
regression model. Mean heights and diameters of trees were calculated for the classes
F1 and F2 in order to identify which stage of regeneration (Table 3.1) the sampled
forests fitted.
3.2.5 Delineation of scenarios of legal vulnerability
Spatial delineation of forests and areas targeted by the Forest Code and by the Federal
Decree of Law 750 were overlapped using ArcMap to determine the extent to which
legislation has been respected as well as to map the vulnerability of forest to conversion
to other land uses as a function of legislative environment and land uses. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was used to test whether the proportion of forested areas within
catchments differs among the various legal restrictions associated with slope, proximity
to water, and hilltops.
56
3.3 Results
3.3.1 Permanent Preservation Areas
Of the 7,641 hectares of the study area, 3,058 hectares (i.e. 40%) are classified as PPA
due to one or more of the following characteristics: hilltops, slope greater than 45o, less
than 30 metres from margins of streams, less than 100 metres from the water reservoir
in rural areas, and less than 30 metres from the water reservoir in urban areas. However,
only 1,546 hectares (50.6%) of these PPA areas are covered by native forest (Figure
3.2).
Figure 3.2 Deforested PPAs on margins of streams, margins of rivers and hilly slopes.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that mean proportion of forest cover within
the catchments is significantly different (F=5.98; df = 7; p < 0.01) among areas based on
the different legal restrictions on deforestation (slope, proximity to water bodies, and
hilltop locations), with the lowest area under forest cover at 47.6% being reservoir
57
margins and the highest at 71.1% being steep reservoir margin locations, and therefore
falling under two legislation categories (Figure 3.3).
0.85
0.80
Forest Cover
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
Res
NR
Riv + Res
Top
Riv
Decl
Riv + Decl
Res + Decl
Figure 3.3 Mean proportion of forest cover in each category of legal restriction for deforestation.
(“Res” = reservoir margins; “NR” = areas that do not fit legal restrictions to deforestation; “Riv+Res” =
stream margins overlapping reservoir margins; “Top” = hilltops; “Riv” = stream margins; “Decl” =
declivity higher than 45o; “Riv+Decl” = stream margins overlapping declivities higher than 45o;
“Res+Decl” = reservoir margins overlapping declivity higher than 45o). Lines represent standard error.
To provide an indication of where the largest differences lie, we conducted a post hoc
pairwise comparisons using Tukey’s HSD test (Table 3.2). Although the lowest mean
forest cover is observed on reservoir margins, it differs significantly only from other
legal restrictions that include steep slopes.
Forest cover on land that lies outside PPA designations and for which there is therefore
no legal restriction based on the Forest Code, does not differ significantly from areas to
which certain legal restrictions apply, namely: hilltops; stream margins; slopes > 45o;
and stream margins overlapping reservoir margins. Steeply sloping reservoir margins
have significantly more forest cover than hilltops, stream margins, and stream margins
overlapping reservoir margins.
Table 3.2 Pairwise post hoc comparisons (Tukey Test) among restrictions to deforestation within
PPAs
MEAN FOREST
COVER (%)
LEGAL
RESTRICTION
Margin of reservoir
No restriction
Margin of streams
+ reservoir
Hilltops
Margin of streams
Slope > 45o
Margin of streams
+ slope > 45o
Margin of reservoir
+ slope > 45o
47,6
Margin of
reservoir
47,9
No
restriction
1,000
n.s.
49,9
Margin of
streams +
reservoir
1,000
1,000
52,4
53,6
64,6
71,1
0,044
0,052
Margin of
streams +
slope > 45o
0,011
0,013
Margin of
reservoir +
slope > 45o
0,000
0,000
0,982
0,213
0,063
0,001
1,000
0,559
0,740
0,221
0,349
0,997
0,005
0,011
0,540
0,916
0,939
Margin
of
streams
0,757
0,799
0,999
Hilltops
60,8
Slope
> 45o
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
S
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
S
S
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
S
S
S
S
S
n.s.
0,956
n.s.
Significance values: *for P < 0.05; NS, not significant.
58
3.3.2 Areas protected by legislation according to stage of regeneration
The results of the multiple logistic regression model suggest overall significant effects
of the predictor variables on the classification of the forests as F1 or F2 (x2 = 27.52, df =
3, p < 0.01). Through the subsequent removal of each of the predictor variables from the
regression model significant effects were found of diameter of trunks (dif = 5.58, p =
0.02), height of trees (dif = 12.41, p < 0.01), and distance from the trees to the centre of
the quadrants (dif = 0.97, p = 0.03) in the classification of F1 and F2 forests. These
results verify the validity of our visual classification of the aerial photographs and
stereoscopy for distinguishing both classes of forests.
The mean diameter of trees calculated for the sampled forests varied from 10.7 cm to
17.1 cm and the mean height varied from 8.7 m to 12.2 m. The means calculated for
forests F1 and F2 are presented in Table 3.3. According to the criteria of Table 3.1 and
the mean values, both F1 and F2 forests are classified as being in medium stage of
regeneration. Therefore these forests have been protected by the Decree of Law 750
until 2006.
Table 3.3. Mean diameters and heights of trees for forests F1 and F2.
Diameter
Classes of Forests
Height
Mean
Standard
deviation
Mean
Standard
deviation
F1
13.64 cm
1.77
9.88 m
0.63
F2
15.17 cm
1.22
11.34 m
0.59
3.3.3 Current legal vulnerability to deforestation
Twenty four land classifications can be distinguished in the study area when spatial
information about forest cover, classes of vegetation, and legal restrictions determined
by Forest Code and Decree of Law 750 are overlapped. The areas occupied by each land
classification according to these characteristics are presented in Table 3.4. There are
2,975 hectares of F1 forest and 488 hectares of F2 forest outside PPA, i.e. without the
protection by the Forest Code.
Legal protection of these forests is composed only by the Atlantic Forest Law. The 488
hectares of F1 forest outside PPA may be the most vulnerable to degradation because
their physiognomy is more easily misinterpreted and classified as an earlier stage of
regeneration, whereas the F2 forests are apparently more developed.
59
Areas of F1 forest and forest F2 within PPA, i.e. protected both by the Forest Code and
by the Atlantic Forest Law, total 1,516 hectares. The 1,146 hectares without forest
outside PPA constitute the areas without restrictions for agriculture or any other land
use or economic activity. The cleared areas within PPA are composed mainly by
margins of reservoir (731 hectares) and margins of streams (494 hectares). The
distribution of forests within and outside the limits of “PPA” is plotted on the map in
Figure 3.2.
Table 3.4 Total area of forested and non forested lands outside PPAs or fitting different
combinations of PPA land use restrictions.
Forest cover
Scenarios
F1
1
F2
X
3
X
Total
X
731
X
7
X
11
X
14
X
X
X
X
X
X
21
24
403
X
20
23
X
X
18
22
376
X
17
19
X
X
15
16
494
X
14
X
X
X
X
Area
(hectares)
X
X
12
Outside
PPA
226
X
11
Hilltops
X
X
9
High
declivity
177
X
8
13
Margins
of
reservoir
X
X
6
10
Margins
of
streams
X
5
7
Without
forest
X
2
4
Permanent Preservation Area (PPA) designation
X
75
X
125
X
191
X
2975
X
488
X
1146
X
X
45
X
X
49
X
X
75
X
X
4
X
X
6
X
X
6
X
X
5
X
X
7
X
X
5
7641
60
3.4 Discussion
A high proportion (39.7%) of the study area is composed of PPAs due to the
predominance of hilly slopes in the region and the abundance of water bodies. If the
rules of PPAs established by the Forest Code were entirely respected, more than 3,000
hectares of native forest should exist in these areas. However, only 50% of the PPAs are
currently occupied by forest.
The non-forested PPAs indicate that the Forest Code has not been respected since its
establishment in 1965, due to two possible decisions on land management. The first is
removal of forests. The second is preventing forest regeneration in areas that are legally
designated for forest cover. It is important to reinforce that delineation of PPA is not
conditioned by the presence of forest, and the period from 1965 to 2006 would be
sufficient for the forests to regenerate if the PPAs were recognized and respected.
The PPAs on margins of the Atibainha reservoir were created only when the reservoir
was built, in 1973. Therefore, the forest should have had time to regenerate in these
areas from 1973 to 2006. Historical analysis is needed to investigate which of these land
management decisions can be attributed to the negligence of the Forest Code in each
PPA.
The weak influence of Forest Code on land use is also evident when the proportion of
forest cover is compared within and outside PPA areas. Forest cover in PPA areas
identified by only one of the four categories (proximity to streams, proximity to the
reservoir, hilltops and steep slope) is not significantly different to that of areas that are
not under PPA. The presence of forests outside PPA may be due to observance of the
“legal reserve” regulations – the obligation to maintain forest reserves on 20% of the
area of rural properties. However, there is almost no legal reserve officially recognized
in the rural properties in the region, and no enforcement and therefore little motivation
to adhere to the regulations.
Legal restrictions on non-forest land uses within PPAs, even if respected, do not
necessarily ensure continued proper ecological functioning of the forest ecosystems. For
instance, the width of margins of streams under the PPA is sometimes below the
optimal riparian margin width in forests for sediment yield (Sparovek et al., 2002).
Even so, strict observance of these restrictions would represent a meaningful
61
improvement in the level of protection of both forest and the services they provide, with
the addition of 1,516 hectares of forest on hilly slopes, hilltops or margins of water
bodies within the 7,641 hectares of catchments that surround the reservoir.
The high rates of deforestation in PPAs can also be attributed to the historical freedom
of management of private lands. The Brazilian land use policies favour the maintenance
of ecological functions of ecosystems mostly in public protected areas, whereas private
lands are highly suitable to degradation. Nevertheless, in some countries such as the
USA the legal system has been evolving to consider ecological requirements in the
management of private lands. This evolution in land policies is due to the increasing
recognition of ecosystems in private lands as communal goods whose preservation
depends on the integration of private and public interests (Keiter, 1998).
Regulations of land use might not be properly enforced (or difficult to enforce) if the
private interests are neglected, and if opportunity costs are not recognised. In some
countries in Africa, Asia and Europe forest and conservation laws have negatively
affected rural livelihoods by restricting income opportunities and access to services,
health and food (Kaimowitz, 2003). Consequently, alternative strategies to commandand-control mechanisms are necessary for promoting the engagement of landholders in
conservation of ecosystems.
In Australia, command-and-control policies have been giving way to market-based
mechanisms, education, voluntary initiatives, and partnerships among public and private
sectors (Cocklin et al., 2007). One important and widely recognised example of
compensatory and partially market-based conservation mechanism is Costa Rica’s
payment for ecosystem services programme, where the legal system allows for land
owners to be compensated for the provision of ecosystem services in forest areas
(Pagiola, 2004).
Similar approaches are clearly applicable to the Atibainha watersheds. Land owners are
legally bound to protect forest areas yet receive no compensation for forgone
opportunity costs, despite that the forest likely provides important watershed services
benefiting the water company and aesthetic and recreational services to other users of
the landscape. It is therefore not difficult to conceive of a payment for ecosystem
service scheme in this region, but a necessary requirement is the verification of existing
land cover and the ability to track changes in land cover with high resolution in a cost
effective manner.
62
The use of remote sensing and GIS described here provides a baseline and methodology
for this requirement. Currently, however, undesirable changes in land use are more
likely to continue in the Atibainha region as providers and consumers of ecosystem
services are not clearly recognised and compensated. For instance, upstream forest
owners are not paid by downstream farmers who benefit from the maintenance of the
forest for presumed water regulation and erosion control services. Therefore creditors
and debtors of ecosystem services are likely to be found in the region, and the failure to
recognise these actors may lead to land use conflicts.
The reasons for non-enforcement of laws in the region of the lake Atibainha go even
beyond the failure to recognise private interests or the providers and beneficiaries of
ecosystem services. The construction of the reservoir – in the 1970s during the military
dictatorship – had negative social impacts on local inhabitants and may have further
contributed to the disrespect for environmentally sound use of the surrounding land
(Rodrigues, 1999). Recognising that private owners of forest land are providing a
service to others, and compensating them for this service, is likely to go a long way
towards healing some of the social wounds inflicted during this time.
Previous studies revealed that one third of the 105 largest cities of the world obtain a
significant proportion of their drinking water from protected areas recognized by the
IUCN – World Conservation Union (Dudley and Stolton, 2003). More than half of the
water consumed by inhabitants of the city of São Paulo originates from Atibainha
reservoir, which is not surrounded by any publicly protected area, and the creation of
protected areas is unlikely to be feasible in all areas surrounding the lake. In this
situation, the existing Forest Code can be crucial in maintaining forest cover within the
landscape, particularly in the sites most relevant for watershed conservation, but limited
enforcement has been shown to limit its effectiveness, and strict enforcement is likely to
create social and land-use conflicts unless appropriate compensation mechanisms are
considered.
Another meaningful step towards conservation would be the observance of the Atlantic
Forest Law. Means of DBH (Table 3.3) indicate that both F1 and F2 classes fit the
criteria of “medium stage of regeneration” as defined in Table 3.1. Nevertheless, class
F1 is more likely to be susceptible to deforestation than class F2 because the smaller
tree diameters and heights can result in inspectors misinterpreting its legal status and
classifying the forest as “in the initial stage of regeneration”. This type of
63
misinterpretation has often been regarded as an important source of conflict between
researchers, conservationists, government agencies and landowners when permissions
for deforestation are issued (Ditt, 2002). Part of this conflict can be attributed to a
failure of the translation of research-based recommendations into policy.
Without the connections being made between advances in science and legal regulations
about land use, conservation is not ensured (Tabarelli and Gascon, 2005). The
categorisation of regeneration stages by Atlantic Forest legislation fits more readily with
deterministic vegetation succession. Succession is, however, rarely deterministic and in
tropical forests proceeds along a less predictable and more dynamic process. It is
therefore necessary to adopt innovative approaches for exploring spatial heterogeneity
and to analyze its effects on ecological processes (Turner et al., 2001; Pickett and
Cadenasso, 1995).
Considering the legislation, current land uses and the conflicts of misinterpretation
described above, there are three main scenarios for deforestation which are likely to be
found in the region. In ascending order of vulnerability these are: forests within the
boundaries of PPAs; F2 forests outside PPAs; and F1 forests outside PPAs. The first
scenario is considered the least vulnerable to degradation, because restrictions of Forest
Code overlap with restrictions of the Decree of Law 750. The second scenario is of
intermediate risk because only restrictions of the Atlantic Forest Law are applied,
though the stage of regeneration that confers protection under the Forest Code is
relatively unambiguous. Finally, the third scenario is most vulnerable because only
restrictions of the Atlantic Forest Law are applied and there is considerable potential for
misinterpretation of the regeneration stage.
64
3.5 Conclusion
Although conceptual failures are found in the Forest Code and in the Decree of Law 750
(now replaced by the Atlantic Forest Law), non-observance of legislation, and failure of
its enforcement, are perhaps even more serious than lack of proper rules. It is better to
promote efforts on strategies to effectively implement the Forest Code and the Atlantic
Forest Law rather than creating new laws. Conservation strategies and policies can be
improved through the following approaches:
•
Protection of forests within PPA in any stage of regeneration (Figure 3.2)
against any source of disturbance such as burning or cattle grazing;
•
An improved system of assessment and designation of forests to their respective
regeneration stages, that takes account of the ecological realities of dynamic and
complex successional trajectories, while providing an unambiguous but simple
method to determine the ecological or biodiversity value of forest fragments;
•
Incentives for forest recovery, prioritizing non-forested PPAs as indicated on
map in Figure 3.2, need to be provided to promote forest regeneration at these
sites to deliver ecosystem benefits in the form of water and soil protection;
•
Research about adequacy of criteria established by the Forest Code, focusing on
services of forest ecosystems related both to watershed and to biodiversity
conservation;
•
Decision-making processes that recognise ecosystem values and services, and
promote mechanisms by which providers of ecosystem services are compensated
by recipients of the benefits of such services.
65
3.6 References
Braga B.P.F., 2001. Integrated urban water resources management: A challenge into the
21st century. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 17(4):581-99.
Brasil, 1965. Codigo Florestal Brasileiro: lei 4771 de 15 de setembro de 1965. Câmara
dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 1993. Decreto 750 de 10 de fevereiro de 1993. Governo Federal, Brasília.
Brasil, 2006. Lei da Mata Atlântica: lei Federal 11428 de 22 de dezembro de 2006.
Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, São Paulo, 1994. Resolução conjunta 01, de 17 de fevereiro de 1994. Intituto
Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis & Secretaria de Meio
Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, Brasília.
Cocklin C., Mautner N., Dibden J., 2007. Public policy, private landholders:
Perspectives on policy mechanisms for sustainable land management. Journal of
Environmental Management, 85:986-998.
Cullen L., Alger K., Rambaldi D.M., 2005. Land Reform and Biodiversity Conservation
in Brazil in the 1990s: Conflict and the Articulation of Mutual Interests. Conservation
Biology, 19(3):747-55.
Ditt E.H., 2002. Fragmentos Florestais no Pontal do Paranapanema. Ed. Annablume,
São Paulo.
Dudley N., Stolton S., 2003. Running pure: the importance of forest protected areas to
drinking water. Research report for the World Bank/WWF Alliance for Forest
Conservation and Sustainable Use, U.K.
ESRI, 2002. ArcMap version 8.3. ESRI, Redlands.
Fadini A.A.B., Carvalho P.F., 2004. Os Usos da Água do Moinho: Um estudo na Bacia
Hidrográfica do Ribeirão do Moinho. Annals of the II Encontro Nacional da Associaço
Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Campinas.
66
FAO, 2005. FAO Forestry Paper 145: Best practices for improving law compliance in
the forest sector. FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome.
Hirakuri S.R., 2003. Can law save the forest? Lessons from Finland and Brazil. CIFOR,
Bogor Barat.
Hosmer D.W., Lemeshow S., 1989. Applied logistic regression. New York: Wiley.
IBGE, 1978. Cartas topográficas do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística.
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Rio de Janeiro.
Kaimowitz D., 2003. Forest law enforcement and rural livelihoods. International
Forestry Review, 5(3):199-210.
Keiter R.B., 1998. Ecosystems and the law: toward an integrated approach. Ecological
Applications, 8(2):332-341.
Kishor N.M., Rosenbaum K.L., 2003. Indicators to monitor progress of forest law
enforcement and governance initiatives to control illegal practices in the forest sector.
International Forestry Review, 5:211-218.
Linkie M., Smith R.J., Leader-Willians N., 2004. Mapping and predicting deforestation
patterns in the lowlands of Sumatra. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13: 1809-1818.
Martins F.R., 1993. Estrutura de Uma Floresta Mesófila. Ed. Unicamp, Campinas.
Morellato L.P.C., Haddad C.F.B., 2000. Introduction: The Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
Biotropica, 32(4B):786-92.
Myers N., Mittermeier R.A., Mittermeier C.G., Da Fonseca G.A.B., Kent J., 2000.
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772):853-8.
Pagiola S., 2004. Paying for Water Services in Central America: Learning from Costa
Rica. In: Pagiola S., Bishop J., Landell-Mills N. Selling Forest Environmental Services:
Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development. Earthscan, London.
67
Pellet P.F., Ugarte E., Osorio E.M., Herrera F.D., 2005. Biodiversity Conservation in
Chile, legally enough? The need for mapping the law before deciding. Revista Chilena
de Historia Natural, 78: 125-141.
Pickett S.T.A., Cadenasso, M.L., 1995. Landscape Ecology: Spatial Heterogeneity in
Ecological Systems. Science, 269: 331-334.
Quinn G., Keough M., 2002. Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Rodrigues C.M.C., 1999. Águas aos olhos de Santa Luzia. Ed. Unicamp, Campinas.
Secretaria de Meio Ambiente and Ibama, 1994. Resolução conjunta SMA Ibama/SP Nº
1, de 17 de fevereiro de 1994.
Sparovek G., Ranieri S.B.L., Gassner A., De-Maria I.C., Schnug E., Santos R.F.,
Joubert A., 2002. A conceptual framework for the definition of the optimal width of
riparian forests. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 90, 169-175.
StatSoft, 2001. Statistica 6.0. Statsoft, Tulsa.
Tabarelli M., Gascon C., 2005. Lessons from Fragmentation Research: Improving
Management and Policy Guidelines for Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation
Biology, 19(3):734-9.
Tabarelli M., Pinto L.P., Silva J.M.C., Hirota M., Bede L., 2005. Challenges and
Opportunities for Biodiversity Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
Conservation Biology, 19(3):695-700.
Thenail C., Baudry J., 2005. Farm Riparian Land Use and Management: Driving
Factors and Tensions Between Technical and Ecological Functions. Environmental
Management, 36(5):640-53.
Turner M.G., Gardner R.H., O’Neill R.V., 2001. Landscape Ecology in Theory and
Practice. Springer-Verlag. New York.
68
CHAPTER 4
LAND USE CHANGE AND AVAILABILITY OF
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE BRAZILIAN
ATLANTIC FOREST
4.1 Introduction
Most of the benefits that humans obtain from the conversion of forest ecosystems into
other land uses are readily noticed and can be easily quantified. For instance, the profits
obtained through cattle ranching indicate benefits associated to the establishment of
pasture in areas that were previously occupied by forest.
However, the services
provided by natural ecosystems to humans, such as climate regulation or protection of
watershed, and the impacts of forest conversion on the availability of these services are
normally poorly understood (Silvano et al., 2005).
Forecasting the consequences of landscape changes on these services is necessary for
the development of innovative mechanisms that may reverse the current levels of habitat
loss and fragmentation of ecosystems (Tabarelli et al., 2005). This is relevant to the
lands within the former limits of the Atlantic Forest biome in southeastern Brazil, where
the great São Paulo with its 19 million inhabitants is located (Silvano et al., 2005).
Inappropriate land uses represent severe threats to Cantareira System, which is the main
water supply system of São Paulo (Braga, 2001).
The Atibainha reservoir, in the municipality of Nazaré Paulista, is one of the four lakes
that compose the Cantareira system. Since the 1970’s, when this reservoir was built, the
picturesque landscape, formed by the surrounding land with its combination of hilly
slopes, remnants of Atlantic Forest and abundance of water, has been attracting people
from neighbouring towns and cities such as São Paulo who wish to escape from
metropolitan environments. The landscape has been changing as a consequence of the
arrival of both visitors and new residents in the region. Currently, the main land uses are
pasture, eucalyptus plantations, and native forests (Fadini & Carvalho, 2004).
Among the many ecosystem services related to the presence of Atlantic Forest, some
that can be quantified can serve as parameters for assessing the impacts of landscape
69
conversion. Four services are considered in the current study: mitigation of climate
change, mitigation of sediment delivery into the reservoir, purification of water, and
maintenance of soil fertility. Estimates of these services under different land use
scenarios are necessary for driving future land use decisions that can maximize their
availability.
4.1.1 Carbon stocks in forest ecosystems and mitigation of climate change
Estimates of the capacity of forest ecosystems to sequester and store carbon in biomass
are helpful for quantifying their potential contribution for climate change mitigation
because they indicate how much carbon would be released in the atmosphere if the
forests were not present.
Four main carbon pools may be considered in such ecosystems: above ground plant
biomass, below ground biomass, soils, and standing litter. The first of these is the most
easily manipulated carbon pool in carbon storage forest projects (MacDicken, 1997). It
is normally assumed that the carbon stock corresponds to 50 % of plant biomass
(Brown, 1984). In several studies the above ground plant biomass in native forests has
been estimated from data obtained in field surveys of vegetation, including: number of
trees per area, species, wood density, diameters of trees, and height of trees (Brown et
al., 1989; Burger & Delitti, 1999; Melo & Durigan, 2006; IPEF, 2006).
Estimating biomass and carbon stocks in agriculture and forestry plantations is less
complex than in natural tropical forests. One reason is the reduced number of species
with their respective wood densities to be considered. A second reason is the uniform
patterns of size and spatial distribution of the plants. Finally, in agriculture and forestry
plantations it is easier to collect, dry, and weigh the plants for calculating their biomass.
Some studies have been done in South America to estimate biomass and carbon stocks
in eucalyptus plantations (Paixão et al., 2006; Soares & Oliveira, 2002; Ramos, 2001).
Estimates of carbon stocks obtained in these studies and biomass equations for native
forests encountered in the studies mentioned previously are useful for quantifying the
services of climate mitigation provided by each of these land uses in heterogeneous
landscapes.
4.1.2 Preventing sedimentation of the Atibainha reservoir
Models that predict erosion and sediment yield can be used for assessing effects of land
management on soil and water. One of the most used models is the universal soil loss
70
equation –USLE (Bacchi et al., 2003). The input parameters required by USLE are:
rainfall erosivity factor, soil erodibility factor, index of slope length, slope steepness
index, a cover management factor, and a conservation practice factor. Results are
expressed as soil erosion rate per unit of area (Renardt et al., 1997).
An important limitation of USLE is that it does not predict deposition and sediment
yields (Croke & Nethery, 2006). This limitation is overcome by using the modified
universal soil loss equation – MUSLE (Williams, 1975), which was developed
subsequently and has been used for estimating sediment deposition in catchments. The
parameters used by MUSLE are the same of the USLE, with the exception of the
rainfall erosivity factor which is replaced by the runoff factor. The runoff factor is
composed of the volume of runoff and the peak flow rate (Chaves, 1991).
Examples of applicability of MUSLE include a study carried out in the Pipiripau
watershed, near Brasilia, that revealed effects of land management on sediment yield
(Chaves & Piau, 2006). That study is an indication that MUSLE can be used as a tool
for determining the extent of losses in the service played by forests of mitigating
sediment delivery when they are replaced by other land uses in catchments.
4.1.3 Purification of water
Several studies demonstrate effects of land use on the quality of water (Johnson et. al,
1997; Quinn & Stroud, 2002; Shineni, 2005; Allan, 2004). A possible way of assessing
the ability of a landscape to provide clean water is through the chemical analysis of the
water obtained from systems within it.
Parameters normally used for analysis of water include pH, alkalinity, and nutrients. Ph
is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the water and normally varies between 6.5
and 8.5 in non polluted areas. Alkalinity expresses the buffering capacity of water pH,
or the capacity of bases to neutralize acids (Cooperrider et al., 1986). Nutrients such as
nitrite, nitrate and orthophosphate are commonly measured as they are more
concentrated in predominantly agricultural and urban catchments compared with
forested catchments (Johnson et al., 1997). Therefore, determining the relationship
between land use and these chemical parameters is a way to quantify the services played
by forests in water purification.
71
4.1.4 Maintenance of soil fertility
Soil fertility has received much attention due to its importance for agricultural
productivity (Pulleman et al., 2000). However, fertility is not just important for
agriculture purposes. Humans obtain many other benefits from the maintenance of soil
fertility. Biogeochemical processes and elemental cycles that occur in the soils of both
cultivated lands and natural forests depend on their fertility (CSIRO Sustainable
Ecosystems, 2003).
Nitrogen is the nutrient that plants most require, followed by Potassium and Phosphorus
(Van-Raij, 1991; Zhang et al., 2007). Mineralization of organic matter by micro
organisms in the soil produces ammonium and nitrate, the most important available
forms of nitrogen for plants. One of the main roles of Nitrogen in plants is the formation
of proteins that are used as enzymes in metabolic processes. Potassium activates
enzymatic functions for plant growth. Its availability is highly influenced by soil
moisture, due to its high solubility. Phosphorus is found in natural systems in the form
of phosphate. This nutrient is necessary for the development of roots and for the
formation of fruits and seeds (Van-Raij, 1991).
Land use change that cause soil fertility to decline will have knock-on effects for other
ecosystem services (Reid et al., 2005). The impacts on the life of plants are reflected in
the services associated with the forest such as carbon storage, watershed protection, and
ecotourism, among others.
Procedures for the chemical analysis of soil were originally developed for the purpose
of determining fertiler and lime recommendations in agriculture but can equally well be
used
for
evaluating
the
effects
of
land
management.
To
produce
these
recommendations, agronomists often follow the guidelines of the “Technical Bulletin
100” issued by the Agronomic Institute of Campinas (Van-Raij et al., 1997).
The most common parameters considered are organic matter, pH, cation exchange
capacity, and levels of macro and micronutrients (Van-Raij, 1991; Van-Raij et al.,
1997). They have already been applied in studies for evaluating responses of soil quality
to land management (Garcia_montiel et al., 2000; Krishnaswamy & Richter, 2002;
Sauer & Meek, 2003; Schipper & Sparling, 2000). Therefore, these parameters can be
useful for studies of ecosystem services that depend on soil fertility.
72
The objectives of this study are to: 1) quantify the ecosystem services that could be
provided in scenarios comprising each of the current main land uses; 2) determine the
spatial distribution of ecosystem services in the current land use scenarios; and 3)
quantify the impacts of land use changes on the availability of ecosystem services.
73
4.2 Methodology
4.2.1 Study area
The study area includes 188 catchments that surround the Atibainha reservoir. They
occupy 25% of the municipality of Nazaré Paulista and less than 1% of the municipality
of Piracaia. The total area excluding the lake is 7,624 hectares. There are approximately
200 streams narrower than 2 metres in these catchments, flowing to the reservoir. Steep
slopes are predominant in the region, with altitudes varying from 785 metres above sea
level, at the margins of the reservoir, to 1,160 metres at the hilltops.
The “argissolo vermelho-amarelo” (arenic hapludult) is the soil encountered in most of
the study area. The “latossolo vermelho-amarelo” (humic hapludox) can also be found
but over a smaller area (Oliveira et al., 1999). Fragments of Atlantic forest are the main
land use, occupying 46% of the area, followed by pastures (27%), eucalyptus forests
(10%), and other uses (17%). Most of the native forests are secondary and older than 15
years, with canopies taller than 10 metres.
Cattle are grazed in the pastures mostly for the production of milk on small farms with
low productivity and low technology employed. Eucalyptus plantation is one the most
profitable activities in the region and has been expanded on small properties (Fadini &
Carvalho, 2004).
4.2.2 Mapping ecosystem services and scenario analysis
An analysis of the different land use scenarios was used to determine how the
availability of ecosystem services is affected by changes in land use. The ecosystem
services were quantified and mapped in the study area for the current land use scenario
(S1) and for four possible future land use scenarios (S2, S3, S4, and S5), described in
table 4.1. These future scenarios represent homogeneous landscapes that could occur 30
years into the future, i.e. in 2036, resulting from the maximum expansion of each of the
four main land uses (native forest, eucalyptus, pasture, and urban area/soil exposed).
While these are not expected to be realistic future outcomes, they are presented here by
way of comparison.
Each of the ecosystem services required a specific method of assessment as described
below. GIS layers were constructed to express results of the assessments in a georeferenced basis for further analysis of scenarios of land use change. The analysis was
74
applied to both the entire study area composed of all the catchments and to each
individual catchment.
Table 4.1 Land use scenarios considered in the quantification of ecosystem services
Land use scenario
Description
S1
Heterogeneous landscape with 46 % of native forest, 27% of pastures, 10% of
eucalyptus, and 9% of bare soil and/or urbanized areas
S2
Homogeneous landscape with 100% of pastures
S3
Homogeneous landscape with 100% of eucalyptus
S4
Homogeneous landscape with 100% of native forests (F2)
S5
Homogeneous landscape with 100% of exposed soil or urban areas
4.2.3 Estimation of carbon stocks
The benefits of climate mitigation derived from the maintenance of carbon stocks in the
trees above ground were determined for the main land uses in the study area through
estimates of biomass. Four categories of land use were considered: eucalyptus;
pastures/soil exposed; younger native forest (F1); and older native forest (F2). The two
classes of native forests (F1 and F2) could be distinguished through visual classification
of aerial photograph and stereoscopy.
Field sampling of native vegetation was developed in ten areas of forest F1 and in ten
areas of forest F2. The quarter point method (Martins, 1993) was used to collect data for
the following variables: distance of the trees from the sampling points of the quadrants;
height of trees; and diameter of their trunks at 1.30 metres above ground.
Twenty sampling points were established in each area. Each sampling point was
composed of four quadrants, giving 80 quadrants and 80 trees measured. The means of
the data collected in each of the 20 sampled forests were used for calculating: the
average area occupied by each tree, corresponding to the squared distance of the trees
from the sampling points; the number of trees per area; and the average above ground
volume of trees, corresponding to the product of their height by their basal area. The
most appropriate threshold value of trunks’ perimeter for sampling trees that compose
the canopy in the forests of the study area was considered to be 17 cm. Therefore, only
trees with circumference higher than this value were measured.
75
The above ground biomass density was calculated using the equation of Brown (1997),
expressed by: AGB = VOB*WD*BEF, where:
AGB (t/ha) = above ground biomass;
VOB (t/ha) = average above ground volume of trees per area;
WD (t/m3) = wood density;
BEF = biomass expansion factor.
The value of wood density was assumed to be 0.6 ton/m3, as suggested by Reyes et al.
(1992) for closed forests in tropical America. The biomass expansion factor was
determined using the formula: BEF = Exp{3.213-0.506*Ln(BV)}, where
BV = VOB/ha (m3/ha)*WD(t/m3).
Finally, assuming that carbon corresponds to 50% of forest biomass (Brown, 1997), the
estimated values of biomass in forests F1 and F2 were divided by 2 for determining
their respective estimate of carbon stocks above ground per hectare.
The capacity of eucalyptus plantations to accumulate carbon in the above ground
biomass in six years, estimated by Paixao et al. (2006), is 47.7 tons per hectare. This
value was used in the current study for determining to what extent eucalyptus contribute
to the mitigation of climate change. For these purposes it was assumed that the
eucalyptus is regularly harvested every 6 years and the accumulation of carbon in
biomass is linear over the six years. Thus, the obtained average stock of carbon that is
maintained in eucalyptus plantations during the cycle of 6 years is 41.66% of the
estimated 47.7 tons/ha, i.e. 19.87 tons/ha.
This study has focused only on the carbon stocks in the biomass of trees, therefore in
pastures and in areas with soil prepared for agriculture these stocks of carbon were
considered negligible.
4.2.4 Estimation of sediment delivery
The Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) was used to quantify the
contribution of each catchment for delivering sediments into the reservoir in the 5 land
use scenarios considered. The model is expressed by the following equation (Williams,
1975): Y = [89.6*(Q*q)0.56]*K*L*S*C*P, where:
Y = event sediment yield
76
Q = runoff amount
q = peak runoff rate
K = soil erodibility factor
L = slope length factor
S = slope steepness factor
C = cover and management factor
P = support practice factor
The runoff amount (Q) was calculated for every day in a period of 20 years -- from
1984 to 2003 -- using the equation suggested by Chaves & Piau (2006), which is: “Q =
{pa – 0.2*[(25400/CN) – 254]2}/{pa + 0.8*[(25400/CN)-254]}”.
The curve number (CN) is is a parameter determined by hydrologic soil group, cover
type, treatment, hydrologic condition and antecedent runoff condition (USDA, 1986).
The values of CN adopted for pasture, eucalyptus, native forest, and urban areas were
69, 60, 43, and 82, respectively. These values are suggested by Bertoni & Lombardi
Neto (1985). The values of precipitation in each day (pa) were obtained in the database
of the state government, accessible through the internet (www.sigrh.sp.gov.br).
The peak runoff rate (q) was calculated through the equation “q = 0.0021*Q*A/Tp,
suggested by Chaves & Piau (2006), where “A” is the area of the catchment and “Tp”
refers to the peak duration. The value of “Tp” is calculated through the equation “Tp =
(D/2) + (L/3.28)^0.8 * {[(25400/CN)-254] + 1}^0.7 /{(1900*[y^(1/2)]}, where “D” is
the duration of the precipitation, expressed in hours, “L” is the length of the catchment,
and “y” is the average slope, expressed in percentage.
Values of erodibility factor (K) suggested by Bertoni & Lombardi-Neto (1985) for
“Podzolizados Lins e Marília, variação Lins” (K = 0.035) and “Solos de Campos do
Jordão” (K = 0.015) were attributed to catchments of the study area where “argissolo
vermelho-amarelo” (arenic hapludult) and “latossolo vermelho-amarelo” (humic
hapludox) prevail respectively.
Calculation of the slope length factor (L) was based on procedures suggested by Silva
(2003) as explained below:
77
i.
Topographic maps of the study area in scale 1:10.000, published by the
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 1978), with altitude
lines in intervals of 10 metres were digitized using ArcMap.
ii.
A raster digital elevation model (DEM) with cells of 10 metres was produced
from the digitized altitude lines.
iii.
The DEM was used to produce a slope grid map with cells of 10 metres,
expressing slope (s) in percentage.
iv.
The grid cells were classified in four intervals of slope for further attributing
slope coefficient values (m), according to the following criteria: m = 0.5 (s ≥
5%); m = 0.4 (3% ≤ s < 5%); m = 0.3 (1% ≤ s < 3%); m = 0.2 (s < 1%).
v.
The eight-direction pour point model (Maidment, 2002) was applied using
ArcHydro – an extension of ArcMap – to produce a flow direction grid (x),
with cell values of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128, representing the flow of
water in one of the following directions respectively: E, SE, S, SW, W, NW,
N, and NE.
vi.
A flow accumulation grid was produced from the flow direction grid. The
number of flow accumulation assigned to each pixel refers to the number of
contributing pixels.
vii.
The values of flow accumulation were multiplied by the area of each pixel
(10X10 = 100 m2) for producing a map of contribution area.
viii.
The map of slope length factor (L) was created by applying to each cell the
equation L = [(A+D2)m+1-(A)m+1]/ [Dm+2 x m (22.13) m], where: A =
contribution area; D = cell size = 10 metres; m = slope coefficient value; x =
flow direction value.
A grid map of slope steepness factor (S) was created using the following equation of
Wischmeier & Smith (1978): S = 0.00654 * s2 + 0.0456 * s + 0.065, where s = mean
slope in the catchment, expressed in percentage.
The values of cover management factor (C) and support practice factor (P) utilized in
this study (table 4.2) were found in the literature (Bertoni & Lombadi Neto, 2005;
Wischmeier & Smith, 1978; Silva et al., 2003).
78
Table 4.2 Values of cover management factor and support practice factor adapted from Bertoni &
Lombadi Neto, 2005; Wischmeier & Smith, 1978; Silva et al., 2003.
Land use
Cover management factor (C)
Support practice factor (P)
Pasture
0.01
0.4
Native forest
0.001
0.01
Reforestation
0.003
0.04
1
1
Soil exposed or urban area
4.2.5. Assessment of water quality
Thirty seven streams around the Atibainha reservoir were randomly selected for
assessment of water chemistry in each of the four seasons of the year. Field kits were
used to collect samples of water for measurements of phosphate (PO4); nitrite (NO2-N);
nitrate (NO3); alkalinity; Cl; Fe; pH; and ammonium (N-NH3).
Regression analysis was used to determine the degree to which the proportion of forests,
eucalyptus and pastures in the uplands influence water chemistry in streams.
Considering that the width of buffer areas of streams where land use may influence
water chemistry is unknown, the values of land use proportion, i.e. the independent
variable, were calculated in three possible buffer zones: 30 metres, 100 metres and 200
metres around the streams. ArcMap was used to delineate these buffers and to calculate
the land use proportions.
4.2.6 Assessment of variations in soil fertility
Twenty areas of native forests, ten areas of pastures and ten areas of eucalyptus within
the boundaries of “argissolo vermelho amarelo” (arenic hapludult) were randomly
selected and sampled for assessing the effects of land use on soil fertility. The lands
occupied by “latossolo vermelho-amarelo” (humic hapludox) were neglected in the
assessment of soil fertility because of their relative small coverage. As previously, the
native forests were divided in two groups, corresponding to two stages of development
identified through stereoscopy and visual classification of aerial photographs. They
were named “F1”, corresponding to areas of younger forests, and “F2” corresponding to
older forests. Twenty sub-samples of soil were collected 20 meters from each other in
each sampled area at two depths: from 0 to 20 cm and from 40 to 60 cm. Every group of
79
20 sub-samples was mixed for further extraction of a unique sample of each area. The
samples of soil were sent to the laboratory of the Agronomic Institute of Campinas for
analysis of pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), content of organic matter, and contents
of micro and macro nutrients. The methods and procedures of chemical analysis of soil
adopted by the laboratory are detailed by Van-Raij (1991).
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was initially used to compare means of the chemical
parameters among the land uses. The Scheffé test was used for post hoc multiple
comparisons when significant differences were detected in ANOVA.
A GIS layer was created to indicate areas that could be distinguished by the effects of
land use on soil fertility, according to the results of the multiple comparisons performed
with the Scheffé test.
80
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Land use and carbon stocks
The carbon storage per unit of area in each land use is illustrated in the map of figure
4.1. The total stock of carbon above ground in trees, estimated in the current land use
scenario of the study area, is 328,795 tons. Of these, 125,179 tons are stored in forests
F1, 187,884 tons are stored in forests F2, and 15,732 tons are stored in eucalyptus
(Table 4.3).
Figure 4.1 Above ground stocks of carbon in trees per unit of area, estimated for each of the main
land uses in the study area.
81
Table 4.3 Carbon stocks in the main land uses around the Atibainha reservoir.
Land use
Area (ha)
Above ground carbon stock
Total above ground
in trees per hectare (t/ha)
carbon stock in trees (t)
Younger native forest (F1)
1774.78
70.532
125,179
Older native forest (F2)
2099.78
89.478
187,884
Reforestation
794.55
19.8
15,732
Pasture
2352.96
0
0
Other uses (without forest)
622.42
0
0
Total
7,644.49
-
398,795
The total value of carbon stock in above ground biomass of trees can change to 684,014
t, 151,361 t, and 0 t in the next 30 years, if the landscape is entirely converted to native
forest (F2), eucalyptus, or pasture, respectively.
4.3.2 Land use and sediment delivery in the reservoir
The amounts of sediment delivered in the reservoir, estimated through MUSLE, in each
of the 188 catchments in four hypothetical future homogeneous land use scenarios of
urban area/exposed soil, pastures, eucalyptus, and native forests are indicated in the
Appendix 4.1. The sum of these values for the entire study area is 244,520 1,483; 67;
and 9 tons per year for each land use scenario, respectively.
Among the land uses considered in the study, exposed soil/urban area is the least
effective in preventing sediment delivery in the reservoir. Therefore, it became the
reference land use scenario for determining the additional benefits associated with
native and eucalyptus forests in preventing sediment delivery. The following equations
were used to calculate these benefits:
PSDf = ESDu – ESDf, PSDe = ESDu – ESDe, and PSDp = ESDu – ESDp, where:
PSDf = additional prevention of sediment delivery by native forest;
ESDu = estimated sediment delivery in catchments occupied by urban area/soil
exposed;
ESDp = estimated sediment delivery in catchments occupied by pasture;
ESDf = estimated sediment delivery in catchments occupied by native forests;
PSDe = additional prevention of sediment delivery by eucalyptus;
82
ESDe = estimated sediment delivery in catchments occupied by eucalyptus.
Variations in the capacity of native forests and eucalyptus to prevent sediment delivery
among catchments are shown by the differing levels in each catchment area (Appendix
4.2). The last column of this table indicates the total prevention of sediment delivery
that was obtained through multiplication of the proportion of each land use within each
catchment by the respective rate.
The catchments are classified into six levels according to the capacity of native forests
to prevent sediment delivery per unit of area (figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Classification of the catchments according to the average prevention of sediment
delivery in the reservoir per unit of area (t/ha).
4.3.3 Land use and quality of water
The significant correlations detected in the regression analysis between proportion of
land use and chemical parameters of water are presented in table 4.6. The percentage of
83
pasture in any of the three buffer zones considered, i.e. 30 metres, 100 metres, and 200
metres, had significant correlation (p < 0.05) with alkalinity in the summer and in the
winter. Percentage of native forest in the three buffer zones had significant correlation
(P < 0.05) with alkalinity in the autumn. In the winter, significant correlations (p < 0.05)
were also found when buffer zones of 30 metres and 200 metres were considered.
However, the low values of R2 obtained in all these cases indicate that the regressions
explain a low proportion of the variation in data of alkalinity. No significant correlation
was detected when considering percentage of eucalyptus as the predictor variable,
neither when considering any of the other chemical parameters as the response variable.
Table 4.6 Significant correlations between land use and water chemistry in buffer zones of 30m,
100m, and 200m around streams.
Buffer (m)
Land use
Season
R2
Adjusted R2
F
p
30
Native forest
Autumm
0.186
0.163
8.006
0.008
30
Native forest
Winter
0.159
0.135
6.608
0.015
30
Pasture
Summer
0.147
0.123
6.045
0.019
30
Pasture
Winter
0.17
0.147
7.183
0.011
100
Native forest
Autumm
0.156
0.132
6.454
0.016
100
Native forest
Winter
0.194
0.171
8.433
0.006
100
Pasture
Summer
0.18
0.156
7.678
0.009
100
Pasture
Winter
0.176
0.152
7.478
0.01
200
Native forest
Autumm
0.16
0.136
6.665
0.014
200
Native forest
Winter
0.16
0.136
6.662
0.014
200
Pasture
Summer
0.166
0.143
6.988
0.012
200
Pasture
Winter
0.139
0.115
5.657
0.023
4.3.4 Soil fertility
Results of ANOVA (table 4.7) indicate significant effect of land use on pH, cation
exchange capacity, mean contents of organic matter, potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and
boron (B). The effect of depth is significant for all the chemical parameters, except
copper (Cu).
84
Table 4.7 Results of analysis of variance for comparing soil fertility in different land uses at
different sampling depths.
Effect
Response
SS
DF
MS
F
P
variable
Land use
Organic matter
1914.6
3
638.2
9.721
0.000017
Depth
Organic matter
13546.0
1
13546
206.335
0.000000
Land use
P
71.072
3
23.691
2.1271
0.103866
Depth
P
1336.613
1
1336.613
120.0114
0.000000
Land use
K
3.3926
3
1.1309
4.2163
0.008232
Depth
K
12.8801
1
12.8801
48.0216
0.000000
Land use
Ca
361.186
3
120.395
4.5361
0.005620
Depth
Ca
405.000
1
405.000
15.2591
0.000203
Land use
Mg
5015.02
3
1671.67
1.47869
0.227179
Depth
Mg
11068.51
1
11068.51
9.79070
0.002498
Land use
B
0.034765
3
0.011588
3.257
0.026204
Depth
B
0.254251
1
0.254251
71.458
0.000000
Land use
Cu
1554.48
3
518.160
2.208865
0.094028
Depth
Cu
382.81
1
382.812
1.631893
0.205382
Land use
Fe
9090.2
3
3030.1
2.0443
0.114875
Depth
Fe
97092.1
1
97092.1
65.5050
0.000000
Land use
Mn
832.94
3
277.648
1.95793
0.127574
Depth
Mn
3768.89
1
3768.885
26.57768
0.000002
Land use
Zn
3990.32
3
1330.105
1.990585
0.122617
Depth
Zn
1658.93
1
1658.931
2.482693
0.119314
Land use
Ph
1.578
3
0.526
13.25
0.000000
Depth
Ph
0.561
1
0.561
14.14
0.000334
Land use
CEC
11199.2
3
3733.1
4.6489
0.004915
Depth
CEC
59394.1
1
59394.1
73.9654
0.000000
Post hoc analysis using the Scheffé test detected significant differences only in the
contents of organic matter when native forests were compared with eucalyptus and with
pastures (table 4.8). No differences were found between eucalyptus and pastures, neither
between the two types of forest. Therefore, the land uses can be merged in two classes
related to the content of organic matter: the lands with native forest and those without
native forest. The mean contents of organic matter at the depth interval of 0 to 20 cm,
calculated for these classes are 55.7 g/dm3 and 42.15 g/dm3, respectively. Extrapolation
85
of these classes of organic matter to the entire study area is illustrated in the map of
figure 4.3.
Table 4.8 Results of post hoc analysis performed with Scheffé test for revealing influence of land
use on the content of organic matter.
F2
Forest F2
F1
Eucalyptus
Pasture
0.929965
0.004107
0.000411
0.039985
0.006511
Forest F1
n.s.
Eucalyptus
s.
s.
Pasture
s.
s.
n.s.
Mean content of organic matter
41.500
39.778
32.000
0.919953
30.200
Figure 4.3 Mean contents of organic matter in soils occupied by native forests or other uses.
The Scheffé test performed for all possible multiple comparisons of land uses for the
remaining nutrients considered in this study revealed significant differences only in the
content of Ca, when eucalyptus was compared with pasture (p=0.006), and in the
content of B, when forest type F1 was compared with pasture (p=0.0436).
86
4.4 Discussion and conclusion
Ideally, a remnant of pristine forest should be assessed in the study area in order to
determine the maximum capacity of natural forests to contribute to mitigation of climate
change. However, the Atlantic Forest biome has been severely disturbed by humans on
the past 500 years (Dean, 1996) and no pristine forest is encountered in the region and it
is therefore not possible to find a reference area to study carbon storage.
Both classes of native forest that have been studied, i.e. F1 and F2, are secondary and
their biomass is probably still increasing. If these forests remain untouched in the future
their average carbon stock above ground may be higher than the estimated 89.5 tons/ha
for forests F2. In the west of São Paulo, for instance, the carbon stock estimated in
another study in the same type of forest, although it was in another type of soil, was 149
tons/ha (Melo & Durigan, 2006). Although the maximum capacity of carbon storage is
unknown, results of the current study revealed that even the younger native forests are
more efficient than eucalyptus and pastures in their capacity to store carbon.
If the eucalyptus plantations remain untouched for a long time their stock of carbon will
also probably increase and may achieve a value beyond that estimated by Paixao et al.
(2006). However, considering the practices of eucalyptus plantation currently adopted in
Nazaré Paulista, cycles longer than 6 years are not likely to occur.
The assessments of carbon in this study were focused on above ground biomass of trees
whose trunk circumference is greater than 17 centimetres. Other carbon pools like soil,
roots, lianas, and small trees have not been considered, thus the complete stocks of
carbon were not determined. Nevertheless, the results obtained provide an initial
understanding of the potential magnitude of the contribution of each land use for
mitigation of climate change.
The map of land uses and carbon stocks in figure 4.1 can be used as a tool to predict the
consequences of interventions in the landscape. Deforestation of one hectare in areas of
forests F1 and F2 for the establishment of pastures, residences, or other non forest uses
may result in the release of more than 70 to 89 tons of carbon into the atmosphere,
respectively. Replacement of one hectare of eucalyptus by pasture may contribute to
climate change through releasing more than 19 tons of carbon in the atmosphere.
The positive impacts towards climate change that are expected from the replacement of
one hectare of pasture by native forest is more than 89 tons of carbon removed from
87
atmosphere over a period of 30 years, and when replaced by eucalyptus is more than 19
tons over a period of 6 years.
The order in which the main types of land uses considered (native forests, eucalyptus,
pastures, and exposed areas) contribute to the mitigation of climate change is the same
as that for the services associated to prevention of sediment delivery in the reservoir.
If the entire study area were occupied by native forests a total of 9 tons of sediment
yield would be expected every year. However, occupation of the entire area by pastures
would be more detrimental to the storage of water in the reservoir as the estimated
amount of sediment delivered per year would be about 1,500 tons. Effects of occupation
of all the area by eucalyptus are closer to native forests with 36 tons of sediment yield
per year. The estimated prevention of sediment yield in the current land use scenario is
1,037 tons per year; therefore restoration of native forest in the study area has the
potential to mitigate up to 500 tons of sediment delivery per year. The achievement of
this optimum level of ecosystem service probably is not feasible because local forces
such as the economic opportunity cost of non forest land uses would impede the
establishment of native forests in the entire area.
Forest recovery may be feasible in a certain proportion of the deforested lands, thus the
classification of the 188 catchments of the study area according to the capacity of
forests to prevent sedimentation is helpful for choosing the most appropriate areas to be
restored. Despite most studies that have used the MUSLE approach for estimating the
amount of sedimentation (Chaves & Piau, 2006; Araujo-Junior, 1997) being focused in
single catchments the current research has involved 188 catchments. The results
obtained, such as the map classifying the watersheds according to the contribution of
land uses to prevent sedimentation (figure 4.2) can be applied for broader purposes of
landscape management through revealing priority areas for planning interventions that
can mitigate losses of soil and subsequent sedimentation.
The map in figure 4.2 can, in the same manner, be helpful in land use decisions because
it shows catchments in the landscape of the study area where forest conservation, forest
restoration, and deforestation will most affect the water storage in the reservoir.
The analysis of water chemistry indicated weak association between land uses in the
buffer zones of streams and the quality of water with the exception of alkalinity.
Therefore, the only consequence of changes in land use that could be perceived in water
88
is a variation in the capacity of neutralization of acids that originate from water
pollution. The independence of levels of nutrients such as phosphates, nitrite and nitrate,
from the influence of land use is probably due to the current economic land use
activities in the region: local farmers normally do not use mineral fertilizers; hence no
meaningful leaching in water bodies can be expected.
Despite this lack of influence in the chemical quality of water, variations in land use
were significantly related to some of the chemical parameters of soil fertility. The map
in figure 4.3 indicates that the mean content of organic matter is 55.7 g/dm3 in soils
occupied by forests and 42.15 g/dm3 in other land uses. The difference, i.e. 13.55
g/dm3, can be interpreted as the rate of organic matter losses that may occur through
conversion of forests, or the gains that may occur through restoration.
The results discussed above are helpful in quantifying in physical terms some of the
negative impacts of land use change on human welfare. The maps in figures 4.1, 4.2,
and 4.3 indicate, at any point in the landscape, variations in: the amount of carbon
potentially sequestered from the atmosphere, the amount of sediment delivered to the
reservoir, and the amount of organic matter retained in the soils if native forests are
replaced or if they replace other land uses.
Results of this study also reveal the maximum and the minimum achievable values of
ecosystem services in the study area according to extreme expansion of the current main
land uses. These results can support formulation of policies that aim to maximize
benefits to humans from land use decisions. Among several potential strategies to be
considered in such policies is economic valuation of ecosystem services followed by the
development of mechanisms of payments for such services.
89
4.5 References
Allan J. D., 2004. Landscapes and riverscapes: The influence of land use on stream
ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 35:257-284.
Araujo-Junior G.J.L.D., 1997. Aplicação dos modelos EUPS e MEUPS na bacia do
Ribeirão Bonito (SP) através de técnicas de sensoriamento remoto e groprocessamento.
INPE – Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José dos Campos.
Bacchi O.O.S., Reichardt K., Sparovek G., 2003. Sediment spatial distribution
evaluated by three methods and its relation to some soil properties. Soil and Tillage
Research, 69:117-125.
Bertoni J., Lombardi-Neto F., 2005. Conservação do Solo. Ícone Editora, São Paulo.
Braga B.P.F., 2001. Integrated urban water resources management: A challenge into the
21st century. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 17:581-599.
Brown S., 1997. Estimating Biomass and Biomass Change of Tropical Forests: a
Primer. FAO Forestry Paper 134, Rome.
Brown S., Lugo A.E., 1984. Biomass of Tropical Forests - A New Estimate Based on
Forest Volumes. Science, 223:1290-1293.
Brown S., Gillespie A.J.R., Lugo A.E., 1989. Biomass estimation methods for tropical
forests with applications to forest inventory data. Forest Science, 35:881-902
Burger D.M., Delitti W.B.C., 1999. Fitomassa epigéa da mata ciliar do rio Mogi-Guaçu,
Itapira - SP. Revista Brasileira de Botânica, 22(3): 429-435.
Chaves H.M.L, 1991. Análise global de sensibilidade dos parâmetros da Equação
Universal dePerda de Solos Modificada (MUSLE). Revista Brasileira de Ciência do
Solo, 15: 345-350.
Chaves H.M.L., Piau L., 2006. Efeito da variabilidade climática e do uso e manejo do
solo sobre o escoamento superficial e o aporte de sedimento em uma pequena bacia
90
hidrográfica do Distrito Federal. Annals of VII Encontro Nacional de Engenharia de
Sedimentos, Porto Alegre.
Cooperrider A., Boyd R.J., Stuart H.R., 1986. Inventory and Monitoring of Wildlife
Habitat. United States Department of Interior, Denver.
Croke J., Nethery M., 2006. Modelling runoff and soil erosion in logged forests: Scope
and application of some existing models. CATENA, 67:35-49.
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, 2003. Natural Assets: An inventory of ecosystem
goods and services in the Goulburn Broken Catchment. CSIRO, Canberra
Dean W., 1996. A Ferro e Fogo: a história e a devastação da mata atlântica brasileira.
Companhia das Letras, São Paulo.
Fadini A.A.B., Carvalho P.F., 2004. Os Usos da Água do Moinho: Um estudo na Bacia
Hidrográfica do Ribeirão do Moinho. Annals of the II Encontro Nacional da Associaço
Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Campinas.
Garcia-Montiel D. C., Neill C., Melillo J., Thomas S., Steudler P.A., Cerri C.C., 2000.
Soil Phosphorus Transformations Following Forest Clearing for Pasture in the Brazilian
Amazon. Soil Science Society American Journal, 64:1792-1804.
IBGE, 1978. Cartas topográficas do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística.
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Rio de Janeiro.
IPEF, 2006. Análise ecológica, dendrométrica e do uso potencial de espécies arbóreas
nativas em plantios consorciados visando o seqüestro de carbono. Instituto de Pesquisas
e Estudos Florestais, Piracicaba.
Johnson L.B., Richards C., Host G.E., Arthur J.W., 1997. Landscape influences on
water chemistry in Midwestern stream ecosystems. Freshwater Biology, 37:193-208.
Krishnaswamy J., Richter D.D., 2002. Properties of Advanced Weathering-Stage Soils
in Tropical Forests and Pastures. Soil Science Society American Journal, 66:244-253.
91
MacDicken K.G., 1997. A Guide to Monitoring Carbon Storage in Forestry and
Agroforestry Projects. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development,
Arlington.
Maidment D.R., 2002. Arc-Hydro: GIS for water resources. ESRI, Austin.
Martins F.R., 1993. Estrutura de Uma Floresta Mesófila. Ed. Unicamp, Campinas.
Melo A.C.G., Durigan G., 2006. Carbon sequestration by planted riparian forests in
Paranapanema Valley, SP, Brazil. Scientia Forestalis, 71: 149-154.
Oliveira J.B., Camargo M.N., Calderado-Filho B., 1999. Mapa pedológico do Estado
de São Paulo: Escala 1:500.000. Embrapa-Solos, Rio de Janeiro.
Paixão F., Soares C., Jacovine L., 2006. Quantification of carbon stock and economic
evaluation of management alternatives in a eucalypt plantation. Revista Arvore, 30(3):
411-420.
Pulleman M.M., Bouma J., van-Essen E.A., Meijles E.W., 2000. Soil Organic Matter
Content as a Function of Different Land Use History. Soil Science Society American
Journal, 64:689-693.
Quinn J.M., Stroud M.J., 2002. Water quality and sediment and nutrient export from
New Zealand hill-land catchments of contrasting land use. New Zealand Journal of
Marine and Freshwater Research, 36: 409-429.
Ramos J.G., 2001. Estimacion del contenido de carbono en plantaciones de Eucalyptus
Globulus Labill, en Junin, Peru. Simposio INternacional Medicion y Monitoreo de la
Captura de Carbono en Ecosistemas Forestales, Valdivia.
Reid W.V., Mooney H.A., Cropper A., Capistrano D., Carpenter S.R., Chopra K.,
Dasgupta P., Dietz T., Duraiappah A.K., Hassan R., Kasperson R., Leemans R, May
R.M., McMichael T., Pingali P., Samper C., Scholes R., Watson R.T., Zakri A.H.,
Shidong Z., Ash N.J., Bennett E., Kumar P., Lee M.J., Raudsepp-Hearne C, Simons H.,
Thonell J., Zurek M.B., 2005. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Island Press,
Washington.
92
Renard K.G., Foster G.A., Weesies D.K., McCool D.K., Yoder D.C., 1997. Predicting
soil erosion by water: A guide to conservation planning with the revised universal soil
loss equation/ USDA Agriculture Handbook 703. United States Government Printing
Office, Washington.
Reyes G., Brown S., Chapman J., Lugo A.E., 1992. Wood densities of tropical tree
species. USDA Forest Service, New Orleans.
Sauer T.J., Meek D.W., 2003. Spatial Variation of Plant-Available Phosphorus in
Pastures with Contrasting Management. Soil Science Society American Journal,
67:826-836.
Shineni R., 2005. The impact of land use on water chemistry and physical parameters of
tropical streams of the northeast shore of Lake Tanganyika. Nyanza Report
2005/University of Arizona,Tucson
Schipper L. A. and G. P. Sparling, 2000. Performance of Soil Condition Indicators
Across Taxonomic Groups and Land Uses. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 64:300-311.
Silva A.M., Schulz H.E., Camargo P.B., 2003. Erosão e hidrosedimentologia em bacias
hidrográficas. Rima Editora, São Carlos.
Silva V.C., 2003. Calculo automático do fator totpográfico (LS) da EUPS, na bacia do
Rio Paracatu. Pesquisa Agropecuária Tropical, 33 (1):29-34.
Silvano R.A.M., Udvardy S., Ceroni M., Farley J., 2005. An ecological integrity
assessment of a Brazilian Atlantic Forest watershed based on surveys of stream health
and local farmers' perceptions: implications for management. Ecological Economics,
53:369-385.
Soares C., Oliveira M., 2002. Equations for estimating the amount of carbon in the
aerial parts of eucalyptus trees in Viçosa, MG, Brazil. Revista Arvore, 26(5): 533-539.
Tabarelli M., Pinto L.P., Silva J.M.C., Hirota M., Bede L., 2005. Challenges and
Opportunities for Biodiversity Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
Conservation Biology, 19:695-700.
93
USDA, 1986. Technical Release 55: Urban hydrology for small watersheds. United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Van-Raij B., 1991. Fertilidade do solo e adubação. Ed. Ceres, Piracicaba.
Van-Raij B., Cantarella H., Quaggio J.H., Furlani A.M.C., 1997. Boletim Técnico 100:
Recomendações de adubação e Calagem para o Estado de São Paulo. Instituto
Agronômico – Fundag, Campinas.
Williams J.R., 1975. Sediment yield prediction with universal equation using runoff
energy factor. In: Present and prospective technology for predicting sediment yields and
sources. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Wischmeier W.H., Smith D.D., 1978. USDA Agriculture Handbook, number 537:
Predicting rainfall erosion losses: a guide to conservation planning. United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Zhang K., Greenwood D.J., White P.J., Burns I.G., 2007. A dynamic model for the
combined effects of N, P and K fertilizers on yield and mineral composition; description
and experimental test. Plant and Soil 298, 81-98.
94
CHAPTER 5
ECONOMIC VALUE MAPS OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:
INNOVATIVE TOOLS FOR PLANNING
INTERVENTIONS IN THE BRAZILIAN ATLANTIC
FOREST
5.1 Introduction
The availability of benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems, including climate
regulation, watershed protection, conservation of biodiversity, and tourism can be
severely affected by changes in land use, such as conversion of forests into pasture or
plantation of eucalyptus. These benefits are known as ecosystem services (Costanza et
al., 1997; Daily, 1997).
The absence of markets for most of the ecosystem services generates the illusion that
because their price is zero they have no economic value (Pearce, 2001). However
economic values exist and reflect the welfare that people gain due to the presence of
these services (OECD, 2002). Demonstration of economic values of ecosystem services,
followed by their capture, i.e. internalization in market systems may turn out to be an
effective mechanism to influence land use decisions with the objective of improving
people’s welfare (Pearce, 2001).
Existing legal rules of conservation of the Atlantic Forest are not fully respected on the
lands surrounding the Atibainha reservoir in south-eastern Brazil and do not guarantee
sound land uses (Ditt et al., 2006). Capture mechanisms based on market systems,
where landowners get paid for the ecosystem services provided, may contribute to
compensate for the lack of proper land use guidelines. These mechanisms require
information about ecosystem services in different land use scenarios. However,
acquiring and managing this information in Atlantic Forest landscapes is difficult due to
the complexity of ecosystems where different combinations of environmental variables,
including types of vegetation, soil, and slope occur.
95
Such measurement difficulties can be overcome by using methods of spatial economic
valuation. These methods integrate in geographic information systems (GIS) the
environmental characteristics at any point of the landscape for the purpose of
quantifying the ecosystem services and their values, and for generating economic value
maps (Eade & Moran, 1996).
One of the few available examples of application of this approach are three case studies
in different locations and in different scales in the USA, where a spatial typology
representing various land uses was developed and economic values were subsequently
assigned (Troy & Wilson, 2006). Moreover, in the Qinba Mountains of China, a spatial
database of vegetation, soil, and topography was developed for assessing ecosystem
services and their values, with the purpose of supporting decision making processes.
That region is characterized by a diversity of types of vegetation and by the location in
the watershed of rivers where conservation of water and soil is critical (Li et al., 2006).
Similar characteristics observed on catchments around the Atibainha reservoir in Brazil
indicate that this region is also suitable for using GIS and valuation approaches in order
to reveal influences of land use change on the availability of ecosystem services.
This study adds to this emerging literature by firstly estimating the total economic value
of ecosystem services on the lands surrounding the Atibainha reservoir; secondly by
mapping economic values of ecosystem services; and thirdly by accounting for
monetary gains and losses related to ecosystem services in hypothetical scenarios of
landscape change.
96
5.2 The study area
The area selected for this study is the Atibainha water reservoir and its surrounding
catchments in south-eastern Brazil. The total area of the catchments (excluding the lake)
is 7,624 hectares. Nazaré Paulista and Piracaia, the municipalities where these
catchments are located, contain approximately 60,000 residents in total, of which 50%
are living in rural areas (IBGE, 2000).
Despite lack of compliance with existing forest conservation legislation, the presence of
fragments of Atlantic Forest in 46% of the non-flooded areas restricts conventional
farming practices. The rural economic activities are based mostly on eucalyptus
plantations (on 10% of the areas above reservoir) and cattle grazing on pastures (on
27% of the areas above reservoir). The water stored in the reservoir is consumed by
more than 10 million people who live in nearby large towns outside the study area such
as São Paulo and Guarulhos (Whately & Cunha, 2007). Further to its role in the water
supply system, this region is also important for recreation and tourism activities due to
the picturesque landscape formed by the Atlantic Forest, the water reservoir, and the
hilly slopes (IPT, 2007).
97
5.3 Values of land uses around the Atibainha reservoir
5.3.1 Total economic value (TEV) of ecosystem services
Economic value is a measurement in monetary terms of people’s preferences for some
goods or services (Pearce, 1993). These preferences correspond to the willingness to
pay for the benefits associated with these goods and services or the willingness to accept
for giving up these benefits (Bateman et al., 2002). This concept of economic value is
anthropocentric and instrumental. It does not consider intrinsic values, i.e. values of
environmental assets that cannot be measured and exist not because of human
preferences (Pearce, 1993).
There are some criticisms to the use of the instrumental concept of value due to the
understanding that certain resources such as biodiversity have a higher order of value
and can not be subject to scales of comparability (Bateman et al., 2002; OECD, 2002).
However, the use of these scales of comparability, based on economic values, are of
high applicability for understanding how the increase or decline in ecosystem services
can affect human well being (Bockstael et al., 2000; Common & Stagl, 2005). The
current study has used the instrumental concept of value. Demonstration and
measurement of economic values of environmental assets requires the use of techniques
of economic valuation (Pearce, 1993). These techniques can also be applied for
calculating the total economic value (TEV) of ecosystem services.
The total economic value (TEV) of ecosystem services is composed by direct use
values, indirect use values, option values, and non-use values (Turner et al., 1994;
Pearce, 1999; Pearce & Turner, 1990; Pearce, 2001). Direct use values refer to direct
uses of the resources such as timber and tourism. Indirect use values arise from forest
functions, like watershed protection and carbon storage. Option values refer to future
benefits that can be obtained from forests such as future use of some plants for medicine
or for agriculture. Non-use values are related to welfare arising from conserving the
forest unrelated to any current or future use such as existence or bequest values.
Previous studies attempted to estimate the TEV of ecosystem services in Mexican
forests (Adger et al., 2002), China (Guo et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002), Cape Floristic
region of South Africa (Turpie et al., 2003), the Brazilian Amazonian Forest (Torras,
2000), and the planet (Costanza et al., 1997).
98
Determining the TEV of the goods and services that derive from the current land uses
around the Atibainha reservoir is helpful in understanding how interventions in the
landscape can affect human well-being. A typology of the services provided by the main
land uses that could be identified in the study area is listed in Table 5.1. The value of
each ecosystem service is discussed in turn, in the remainder of this section.
Table 5.1. Economic values and land uses around the Atibainha reservoir
Type
Values
Land use
Direct use
Scenic beauty (tourism)
Native forest
Forestry production
Eucalyptus
Cattle ranching
Pasture
Mitigation of climate change
Native forest, eucalyptus, pasture
Protection of soil and water
Native forest, eucalyptus, pasture
Maintenance of soil fertility
Native forest, eucalyptus, pasture
Pharmaceutical uses
Native forest
Source of seeds of native trees
Native forest
Conservation of biodiversity
Native forest
Indirect use
Option
Non-use
5.3.2 Scenic beauty
The land surrounding the Atibainha reservoir has been targeted for tourism,
development and urbanisation due to the natural beauty of the Atlantic Forest near the
water reservoir and the easy access through highways from big cities such as São Paulo
and Guarulhos (Hoeffel, et al., 2006a). The number of urban residences in Nazaré
Paulista has increased from 2,047 in 1980 to 4,999 in 1991 (CBH-PCJ, 2000). No
detailed description of these houses was found in the literature, but during this study
some evidence was found that a substantial proportion have been used for tourism on
weekends and holidays.
Currently, tourism is one of the most important economic activities in the region, with
25 hotels and marinas already established in the region (IPT, 2007). Despite the
potential for tourism to benefit the region through generation of income, it has to be
cautiously explored, to avoid negative socio-environmental impacts derived from
99
pollution and local residents being pushed to sell their land to wealthier urban dwellers
(Fadini & Carvalho, 2004).
The environmental impacts of tourism and land development refer mostly to domestic
waste delivered to the reservoir, deforestation, and forest fires (Hoeffel et al., 2006b).
This can in turn hinder the future development of tourism in the region. Understanding
the contribution of fragments of Atlantic Forest for economic gains in tourism activities
is useful for determining the economic values of ecosystem services that are associated
to scenic beauty.
5.3.3 Forestry production
Of the 32,654 hectares of lands in the municipality of Nazaré Paulista, 4,471 hectares
are currently occupied by eucalyptus (IPT, 2007). In 2005 the production of eucalyptus
was composed by 1,600 tons of vegetal wool, 98,000 m3 of fuel wood, and 17,000 m3
of raw wood. The economic value of this production was equivalent to U$498,604.00,
U$1,640,930.00, and U$229,302.00 respectively, considering that U$1.00 = R$2.15
(IBGE, 2006). The economic importance of eucalyptus has been increasing over the
years in the region. In one of the catchments around the Atibainha reservoir, for
instance, the proportion of lands occupied by eucalyptus has shifted from 14.4% in 1973
to 27.6% in 2003 (Fadini & Carvalho, 2004).
Such expansion of areas of eucalyptus is probably due to the lack of economic
alternatives in the region and to the increasing demand for wood. One of the largest
cellulose companies in Brazil has launched the “Forestry Propagation Program” in the
region, focusing on local farmers. Through this program farmers receive seedlings and
technical support for forestry production (http://www.vcp.com.br/English/Generic/
Press+Releases/2003/farmers.htm, 10/10/2007). Approximately half of their production
is sold to the cellulose company and the remaining is sold to other consumers such as
brick potteries, bakeries, and pizzerias.
5.3.4 Pastures
Pastures have been declining in the study area mainly due to their replacement by
eucalyptus cultivation in rural properties (Fadini & Carvalho, 2004). However, cattle
ranching is still one of the most important economic activities, and pastures occupy
7,756 hectares, i.e. 23.7% of the area of Nazaré Paulista (IPT, 2007).
100
In 2004 the bovine livestock of the municipality was composed by 5,000 herds. Of
these, 2,700 were cows that produced 1,285,000 litres of milk (IBGE, 2005). According
to information obtained in the state agency for agriculture in Nazaré Paulista, milk is
normally sold to cooperatives, but the main earnings that cattle ranchers obtain are from
commerce of herds (Camila Toledo, personal communication). Quantification of profits
obtained from pasture is therefore essential for determining the total economic value of
the main land uses in the study area.
5.3.5 Mitigation of climate change
Sequestration of CO2 by forests has been widely regarded as an important way to reduce
the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and therefore to mitigate
global climate change (Sheeran, 2006; Fearnside, 2005). The carbon sequestered and
stored in intact forests can be released when these forests suffer anthropogenic
disturbances (Murray, 2003). In broadleaf forests of tropical America the average
biomass was estimated to be 155.1 tons per hectare, 50% of which corresponds to stock
of carbon (Brown & Lugo, 1984). This value may vary, depending on the type of forest
and on the level of disturbance.
The carbon stocks in the above ground biomass of trees in the fragments of forest near
the Atibainha reservoir, estimated in Chapter 4 for different land uses, varied between
70.5 to 89.5 tons of carbon, or 258.7 to 328.5 tons of CO2 per hectare. These fragments
occupy approximately 40% of the 33,000 hectares of the municipality of Nazaré
Paulista (CBH-PCJ, 2000). Therefore, replacement of these forests by other land uses
such as pastures would represent a substantial contribution to global warming with the
possibility of releasing more than 930,000 tons of carbon in the atmosphere.
Among the numerous effects of global warming, some are market related and can be
reflected in national accounts, while others are non-market and correspond to
intangibles such as ecosystems or amenity. One possible approach to assign an
economic value to the service of carbon storage in forests biomass is to estimate
damages caused by CO2 emissions. The damages associated to carbon emissions were
assessed regionally and globally by Fankhauser (1995) and the obtained estimate of the
marginal costs per unit of emission is U$20 per ton of CO2 over a decade.
101
Similarly, recent calculations undertaken by Anderson (2006) for the Stern Review
(Stern, 2007) suggest an average annual cost to reduce fossil fuel emissions of CO2 to
three quarters of current level to be equivalent to U$22.00/tCO2/year.
Another possible approach for economic value assignment is to observe transactions in
carbon market. According to a World Bank report (Capoor & Ambrosi, 2007) the total
value of the carbon market in 2006 composed by allowances – including the European
Union Emission Trade Scheme, the New South Wales system, the Chicago Climate
Exchange, and the UK Emission Trade Scheme – and by project-based transactions –
including the Clean Development Mechanism, Joint Implementation, and other
compliance mechanisms – was U$30,098,000. The corresponding volume of CO2 was
1,639,000 tons, i.e. the average value of each ton of CO2 was U$18.36, which is close
to Anderson’s estimate.
5.3.6 Protection of soil and water
Rain drops falling on the ground contribute towards soil erosion by releasing particles
of soil that can move through the surface runoff (Bertoni & Lombardi-Neto, 2005).
Some of the main consequences of erosion are losses of soil and delivery of sediments
to water courses and reservoirs (Silva et al., 2003).
The intensity of these problems is influenced by land use and management because of
the variations that may occur on: the level of protection from impacts of rain drops,
dispersion of energy of water in the surface runoff, infiltration of water into the soil, and
capacity of soil to retain water (Wischmeier & Smith, 1978). Of the current main land
uses around the Atibainha reservoir, native forests are the most effective in protecting
soil and water, followed by eucalyptus, pastures, and exposed soils, as was
demonstrated in Chapter 4. Thus, estimating the costs to replace benefits that are lost
due to conversion of native forests to other land uses can be a useful approach for
determining the economic value of the services of soil and water protection.
5.3.7. Maintenance of soil fertility
The sustainability of forest ecosystems and the benefits that humans obtain from forests
depend on soil fertility because limited availability of nutrients restricts plant growth.
The nutrient most required by plants is nitrogen that can become available to plants
through decomposition of organic matter (Van-Raij, 1991).
102
Results of Chapter 4 showed that native forests have higher contents of organic matter
in the soil than other land uses in Nazaré Paulista. Therefore, the capacity of forests to
regenerate in non-forested areas is restricted by the reduced availability of nitrogen,
which is associated to the content of organic matter. The costs of adding fertilizers in
the soil to recover the availability of nutrients is one possible way of approximating the
value of the maintenance of soil fertility service which is provided by forest ecosystems.
5.3.8 Pharmaceutical uses
In spite of the severe anthropogenic disturbances that occurred in the Atlantic Forest
landscapes in Brazil during the 20th century, the remaining forest fragments are still
among the ecosystems with the highest number of species in the planet (Myers, 1988).
The chemical compounds encountered in their biodiversity can be of interest for
pharmaceutical applications. Therefore, economic values associated to such applications
are expected to reside in these forests (Pearce & Purushothaman, 1995). No prospecting
of biodiversity is currently occurring in the region of Nazaré Paulista; nevertheless the
option to use Atlantic Forest remnants in the future for pharmaceutical research
remains.
One possible approach to determine the option value associated with pharmaceutical
products in forests is to calculate the value of the “marginal species” in biodiversity
prospecting whilst recognizing the possibility of redundancy among different species in
the utility of their respective chemical compounds. By computing a value of marginal
species of U$9,431 and considering data about biodiversity suggested by Myers (1998;
1990), the willingness to pay of a pharmaceutical company to preserve one hectare of
Atlantic Coast Forest in Brazil was estimated by Simpson et al. (1996) to be U$4.42.
5.3.9 Sources of seeds for forest restoration
As demonstrated in Chapter 3 there is currently a lack of compliance with the legal
requirements to conserve Atlantic Forest around the Atibainha reservoir. The remaining
forests are therefore in danger of conversion to other land uses. However, it was also
observed that some of the Atlantic Forest landscapes near the study area have been
targeted for initiatives of forest restoration. This is due in part to the efforts of some
landowners to manage their properties in accordance with forest laws, the increasing
awareness of the deleterious consequences of deforestation on the availability of other
103
natural assets such as water, and the development of projects to mitigate carbon
emissions.
Forest restoration requires seeds that can be collected from selected trees in the remnant
fragments of forest. Collection of seeds has not been exploited commercially yet in the
lands around the Atibainha reservoir; even so option values can reside in the forests for
this potential use. The price of seeds varies depending to the species. The average price
per kg of seeds produced by a private company in the municipality of Itatinga, in the
state of São Paulo, was R$115 or U$53 (www.matasnativas.com.br, 26/02/2007).
Assuming that a hypothetical landowner is able to collect 1 Kg of seeds per year in one
hectare of forest, the option value of that hectare of forest as a source of seeds can be
estimated in approximately U$53 per year.
5.3.10 Conservation of biodiversity
Tropical forests, including the remnants of forest in Nazaré Paulista, are reservoirs of
biological diversity and provide habitats for many species. These forests can be
considered as a public good whose conservation may increase welfare of people
independently of whether they use it or not throughout the world (Kahn, 2005).
Willingness to pay (WTP) for biodiversity conservation in protected areas has been
estimated in some studies (Shyamsundar & Kramer, 1996; Day, 2002; Swanson et al.,
2002; Adams et al., 2003). One of these studies focused on WTP by Brazilians for
conserving biodiversity in a 35,000 hectares state park (Adams et al., 2003).
The obtained estimate was U$60.39 per hectare per year. Despite the fact that this study
did not explore WTP of distant beneficiaries (such as foreigners) it is an important
reference for getting an approximate economic value of biodiversity conservation in the
forests around the Atibainha reservoir for local Brazilian people, as both areas are in the
state of São Paulo. Furthermore they belong to the same biome, i.e. the seasonal semideciduous Atlantic Forest, with similarities in their structure and composition of
species. The areas differ by the fact that the forests around the Atibainha reservoir are
not within the limits of protected areas, such as a park.
104
5.4 Methodology
5.4.1 Mapping ecosystem services
A spatial valuation framework known as “mapping ecosystem services” (Bateman et al.,
2002; Troy & Wilson, 2006) was adapted to this study. The procedures can be
summarized in the following steps:
i)
The study area was defined by including 188 catchments around the
Atibainha reservoir;
ii)
The services provided by the main land uses in the study area were identified
and assigned to their respective categories of values (Table 5.1);
iii)
Land cover typologies were defined according to the potential of the various
land uses to affect the value of each of the benefits mentioned in Table 5.1;
iv)
The indirect use values listed in Table 5.1 were estimated through analysis of
original biophysical data collected in the field, followed by economic
valuation;
v)
Direct use values of the benefits indicated in Table 5.1 were estimated
through interviews with land users, followed by analysis of their income;
vi)
Using data from the literature the benefits transfer method was applied to
estimate the option and the non-use values indicated in Table 5.1;
vii)
Layers were constructed in a geographic information system (GIS) for
spatial representation of values of each of the benefits listed in Table 5.1;
viii)
A total economic value map was constructed by computing the layers that
relate to all the benefits indicated in Table 5.1;
ix)
Economic value maps of alternative land use scenarios were constructed for
revealing how economic values can be affected by interventions in the
landscape.
Procedures for determining economic values for each of the benefits derived from the
main land uses are described in detail in the following paragraphs.
105
5.4.2 Assigning economic values to carbon storage
Carbon storage in different land use scenarios was calculated in Chapter 4. The obtained
estimated values in old native forests, young native forests, eucalyptus and pastures
were 89.5, 70.5, 19.8, and 0 tons of carbon per hectare, respectively. In order to value
the benefits of climate mitigation, these estimates were initially converted to tons of
CO2, considering that 1ton of carbon is equivalent to 3.67 tons of CO2. The obtained
value of CO2 was multiplied by U$20.00, which is a mean obtained from the values of
annual costs found in the Stern Review (2007) and in a recent World Bank review
(Capoor & Ambrosi, 2007). The decision to consider this average value was based on
the various limitations in any of the attempts to assign an economic value to carbon
benefits that are reported in the literature.
5.4.3. Assigning economic values to prevention of sediment delivery in the water
reservoir
The present value of the amount of money spent by Sabesp, the local water company,
for the construction of the Cantareira Water Supply System is approximately 2 billion
reais (Andriguetti, 2004). This value is equivalent to U$930 million, considering a
dollar/real exchange rate of 2.15. The maximum volume of water that can be stored in
the reservoirs of Atibainha, Jaguari-Jacareí, Cachoeira, and Paiva Castro, that compose
the Cantareira System, is 988.02 hm3, or 988,020,000 m3 (Table 5.2). Therefore, the
average cost of construction of the storage system was U$0.94 per cubic meter of water.
Assuming that the average soil density is 1.2 g/cm3, the cost to replace losses in the
storage capacity of the reservoirs would be approximately U$0.78 per ton of sediment
delivered. This value and the estimates of sediment yield for each of the 188 catchments
that surround the water reservoir developed in Chapter 4 were used to determine
economic impacts of sedimentation caused by changes of land use in each catchment
around the reservoir. A hypothetical scenario in which the entire study area is occupied
by urban area or soil exposed – the land use that most contribute for delivering
sediments into the reservoir – was used as a reference for determining the amount of
sediment yield that is avoided due to the current land uses in each catchment. The
quantities of avoided sediment delivery were multiplied by the replacement cost of
storage capacity of reservoirs in order to determine their respective economic values.
106
Table 5.2 Capacity of water storage in the reservoirs of the Cantareira System (Source: Braga,
2004). Obs.: 1hm = 100m.
Maximum volume (hm3)
Usable Volume (hm3)
1,037.35
807.86
Cachoeira
114.60
70.55
Atibainha
301.51
100.16
27.6
9.44
1,481.03
988.02
Reservoir
Jaguari-Jacareí
Paiva Castro
Total
5.4.4 Assigning economic values to the maintenance of soil fertility
One of the impacts of forest conversion is the decline in organic matter in the soil. Thus,
the maintenance of soil fertility may rely on the addition of fertilizers to compensate
losses of nutrients. The average content of organic matter in deforested lands, as
estimated in Chapter 4, was taken as a reference for calculating the amount of fertilizers,
expressed in kg of nitrogen, which should be added to the soil for rescuing its fertility
properties. Guidelines of soil fertilizing (Van-Raij et al., 1997) for restoration of
Atlantic Forest were used for this calculation. The economic value of the maintenance
of soil fertility was assumed to correspond to the replacement cost of nitrogen. Such
value was determined by considering the amount of nitrogen to be added to the soil and
the average market price of nitrogen in the region where this study was carried out.
It is important to note that the replacement of nitrogen through agronomic procedures
does not necessarily recover all the functions of the soil that are associated to its
chemical components. Therefore the economic value of the maintenance of soil fertility
estimated through the replacement cost of nitrogen should be interpreted with caution,
considering the risks of under estimation associated to the adopted procedure.
5.4.5 Assigning economic values to provision of recreation and tourism
Recreation and tourism activities in the study area are favoured due to its scenic beauty
and location only a short distance away from large urban centres. Currently, there are 25
hotels (pousadas) in the municipality of Nazaré Paulista (IPT, 2007). Conversion of
native forests is a threat to the continuity of these activities. In order to obtain an
estimate of the economic values of recreation or tourism in the area, the zonal travel
107
cost method was applied (Freeman, 2003; Haab & McConnell, 2003; Bateman et al.,
2002; Garrod & Willis, 2001; Motta,1997).
Three categories of services offered by the hotels were considered for determining the
travel costs of their guests. The first category was named “accommodation for sporadic
guests” and refers to lodging for visitors that come and stay in the hotels only
sporadically. The second was named “accommodation for regular guests” and refers to
renting chalets or apartments on a monthly basis for visitors that come regularly to the
hotels. The third category of service was named “garage boats” and refers to renting
space on a monthly basis for visitors to keep their boats.
Owners of 9 hotels were interviewed and, when they gave permission, their records of
guests were consulted. Detailed information was collected about all the services that
three of these hotels -- each one offering a different category of service as defined above
-- had provided during the year of 2006. The main information obtained consisted of: i)
characteristics of the services offered for the guests and visitors; ii) municipality where
visitors come from; and iii) number of visitors from each municipality/year. These
sources of information were assumed to be representative of the entire region, which
includes the 25 hotels.
For the purposes of travel cost analysis only the visitors from municipalities within the
state of São Paulo were considered. Less than 5% of the visitors recorded were from
other states or from other countries and therefore were considered as negligible. The
municipalities of the state of São Paulo were classified in five zones (Figure 5.1), using
GIS, according to their distances from Nazaré Paulista.
The total number of residents in each zone was calculated from data of municipalities’
population based on the census carried out by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and
Statistics (IBGE, 2006). From these data the number of visits per 100,000 inhabitants
was calculated for each zone.
Each record of accommodation of “sporadic visitors” was assumed to correspond to one
visit during the year. Each record of chalet or apartment rented was assumed to
correspond to 24 visits per month, considering that: i) each chalet or apartment is
occupied by an average of 8 guests; and ii) the chalets and apartments are normally used
by the guests on weekends, three times per month. Finally, each space rented for boat
parking in the garage was assumed to be associated to 12 visits per month, considering
108
that: i) each boat is normally used by 4 visitors; and ii) visitors come to Nazaré Paulista
to use their boats normally on weekends, three times per month.
Figure 5.1 Classification of municipalities of the State of São Paulo according to their distances
from Nazaré Paulista.
Expenses with fuel and toll of each visitor from each municipality were estimated, using
a distance and travel cost calculator that was available in the internet
(http://www.bancoreal.com.br/form_popup/veja_maplink/index2.htm, 01/09/2007).
The following assumptions were made: i) travel cost refers to the return trip from each
municipality to Nazaré Paulista in one vehicle that consumes 1 litre of gas per 10 Km
travelled; ii) the average cost of gas is R$2,50 per litre; and iii) on average 3 visitors are
transported in one vehicle.
The population, the number of visits during the year of 2006, and the average travel cost
per visitor from each zone are presented in Table 5.3.
109
Table 5.3 Number of visits and travel cost per visitor from five distance zones in the State of São
Paulo
Zone
Distance from Nazaré
Paulista
Population
Visits
Visits/100,000
people
Average travel cost/ visit
(fuel + toll)
A
00 - 30 km
16,027,712
41180
256,93
R$11,55
B
30 - 60 km
7,965,306
12555
157,6211
R$19,55
C
60 - 90 km
3,999,606
2818
70,45694
R$29,54
D
90 – 120 km
2,254,549
1370
60,76603
R$34,93
E
120 – 450 km
9,076,481
586
6,456247
R$57,17
As described above, from the data collected through the interviews with owners of
hotels and the management of census data in GIS, the following information was
produced: zones defined by travel distance, demographic information from each zone,
number of visits from each zone, and travel cost per visit in each zone. This is the basic
information recommended in the literature for applying the travel cost method.
Controlling for further complementary variables such as socio-economic characteristics
of visitors, substitute tourism site and variations in the preferences of visitors for the
tourist site is desirable but was unfortunately beyond the scope of this study.
Regression analysis was carried out to determine the variation in the number of visits as
a response to travel cost. The resulting estimated values of scenic beauty are a lower
bound to the true benefits to visitors. This is because not all the tourist travel expenses
could be identified during the hotels surveys. Although in order to minimize this risk,
informal interviews were made with some guests for checking their main expenses
during their use of the tourism installations. But more fundamentally the travel cost
method only captures recreational use values and not the non-use values (Freeman,
2003).
5.4.6 Assigning economic values to benefits obtained from eucalyptus and pasture
The economic values of benefits that can be obtained from eucalyptus and pasture were
determined by adapting the methodology that Garcia-Filho (1999) suggests for
assessing farmers’ income. The following equation has been used: RA = PB – CI – D –
S – J – RT, where:
RA = income;
PB = raw product or the value of production;
110
CI = intermediary consumption including fertilizers, pesticides, diesel, soil preparation,
seedlings, seeds, and medicines;
D = depreciation of capital;
S = services;
J = interest;
RT = land renting.
The input data for running the above equation were determined by calculating the mean
of the data collected through interviews with ten producers of eucalyptus and ten cattle
ranchers. They hold approximately 400 hectares of land which correspond to
approximately 20% of the land used for these activities in the study area. Therefore, the
income calculated with the average values from the collected data was assumed to be
the reference economic value of benefits obtained from these activities. For the
purposes of this study the values of the interest were considered negligible.
5.4.7 Transferring benefits
The technique of benefits transfer was applied for valuing option and non-use values
(Pearce et al., 2006; Wilson & Hoehn, 2006). It consists of taking values estimated in
others’ studies and adjusting them to the current study. Therefore, the value of WTP for
preserving Atlantic Forest for pharmaceutical purposes suggested by Simpson et al.
(1996), the option value of the forests as a source of seeds obtained from market prices
of seeds (www.matasnativas.com.br, 26/02/2007) and the value of WTP for conserving
a fragment of Atlantic Forest, suggested by Adams et al. (2003), were transferred to the
current study. An assumption was made that pharmaceutical uses were only achievable
in forests older than 30 years. In order to calculate an annual average the value of
U$4.42/ha estimated by Simpson et al. (1996) was divided by 30.
5.4.8 Valuing ecosystem services in areas legally designated for conservation
It was demonstrated in Chapter 4 that 40% of the study area is composed by “Permanent
Preservation Areas” (PPA), i.e. areas legally designated to be occupied by native forests
for the provision of various services, including protection of soil and water (Brasil,
1965). However, it was found that this land use obligation is only respected in 50% of
the total area of PPAs. The impacts on the provision of ecosystem services of non
111
compliance with this legislation were analyzed by adopting in the areas of PPA the
same procedures of valuing services that were developed for the entire study area.
112
5.5 Results
5.5.1 Economic values of carbon storage
The obtained economic values of carbon storage in old native forests, young native
forests, eucalyptus, and pastures, were U$6,569; U$5,174; U$1,453; and U$00 per
hectare per year, respectively. The spatial representation of these values in the current
land use scenario is illustrated by the map in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Economic value map of carbon storage in the current land uses.
5.5.2 Economic values of protection of soil and water
From the estimates of prevention of sediment yield described in Chapter 4, and
considering U$0.78 as the value of preventing each ton of sediment yield, the obtained
economic value of protection of soil and water associated to current land uses in each of
the 188 catchments around the Atibainha reservoir are presented in the Appendix 5.1.
113
For the purposes of spatial representation, the catchments are grouped in 6 classes of
economic value in Figure 5.3. The estimated values of prevention of sedimentation in
hypothetical scenarios of areas entirely occupied by pastures, eucalyptus and native
forests are presented in the Appendix 5.2.
Figure 5.3 Economic value map of prevention of sedimentation in the current land uses.
5.5.3 Economic values of maintenance of soil fertility
Chapter 04 estimated an average of 42.15 grams of organic matter per cubic decimetre
of soil in deforested lands. When such content of organic matter is found it is
recommended an addition of 20 kg of nitrogen through fertilizers per hectare to ensure
appropriate fertility of soil for restoration of the Atlantic Forest (Van-Raij et al., 1997).
The average price of nitrogen from fertilizers encountered in the region is R$2.60/Kg N
(which is equivalent to U$1.21/ Kg N). Therefore the estimated cost to replace nitrogen
in deforested areas is (20 Kg N/ ha) X (U$1.21/ Kg N) = U$24.20 / ha in 15 years,
114
assuming that this is the necessary period for the forest to recover its capacity to
maintain high contents of organic matter in the soil. Therefore, the estimated economic
value of the maintenance of soil fertility is U$1.61/ha year. The spatial representation of
this service is illustrated by the map in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Economic value map of maintenance of soil fertility in the current land uses.
5.5.4 Economic values of provision of recreation and tourism
Results of regression analysis, with the proportion of residents from each zone that
visited Nazaré Paulista in 2006 as the dependent variable, and travel cost per visit as the
independent variable, are presented in Table 5.4. Significant correlation between these
variables was found (P< 0.05; R2 = 0.84). The obtained equation that relates travel cost
(TC) with number of visits/100,000 people (V) is V = 268.05 – 5.159*TC. The graph of
this simple regression line is in Figure 5.5.
115
Table 5.4 Results of regression analysis with travel cost per visit as the independent variable and
number of visits per 100,000 people as the dependent variable.
B
Std. Err. of B
t value
p-level
Intercept
268.05
45.27
5.92
0.01
TC/visit
-5.16
1.32
-3.91
0.03
N = 5; R = 0.914; R2 = 0.836; Adjusted R2 = 0.781; F(1,3) = 15.268; p < 0.03
60
50
Travel cost / visit
40
30
20
10
0
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
Visits / 100,000
Figure 5.5 Zonal travel cost demand graph. Regression equation: (Visits/100,000 people) = 268.05 –
5.159 * (Travel cost/visit)
By estimating the consumer surplus associated with the visits, one can obtain the
economic value of the provision of tourism and recreation per 100,000 inhabitants. This
corresponds to the area under the demand line in the graph of Figure 5.5, and was found
to be R$6,962.60. The total population of the 5 zones is 39,323,654, thus the total
economic value of this service is (39,323,654/100,000)*(R$6,962.60) = R$2,737,949.00
per year. Considering a real/dollar rate of 2.15 the total value of provision of recreation
and tourism is equivalent to U$1,273,465.00. If the 3,875 hectares of Atlantic Forest in
116
the area are assumed to be necessary for the provision of this service, the respective
economic value of each hectare of Atlantic Forest is U$328.63 per year. The spatial
representation of this service is illustrated by the map in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 Economic value map of direct use values (tourism/recreation, production of eucalyptus,
and cattle ranching in pastures) in the current land uses.
5.5.5 Economic value of forestry production
The average values of the data collected in the interviews with producers of eucalyptus
are presented in Table 5.5. The obtained value of income through inputting these data in
the equation of Garcia-Filho (1999) was R$8,827.58 per hectare. Considering the
real/dollar rate of 2.15 and the total eucalyptus production cycle of 9 years (see Table
5.5), the resulting economic value of forestry production is U$925.32/hectare/year. The
spatial representation of this service is also illustrated in Figure 5.6.
117
Table 5.5 Average values of data collected in interviews with producers of eucalyptus.
Average
Groups of data
Specification
Subtotal
values
Fertilizers
R$59.14/ha
Chemical products
R$6.19/ha
Intermediary consumption (CI)
R$292.51/ha
Diesel
R$35.85/ha
Seedlings
R$191.33/ha
Renting (RT)
Equipment renting
R$6.40/ha
R$6.40/ha
Land preparation
R$394.69/ha
Services (S)
R$1,340.53/ha
Temporary services
R$341.53/ha
Salaries
R$604.31/ha
Depreciation (D)
Animal depreciation
R$69.20/ha
R$69.20/ha
Total cycle (number of harvest multiplied Number of harvest
2
9 years
by age)
Age of eucalyptus
4.5
Production of
245 m3
eucalyptus/ha
Value of production (PB)
R$9,800.00
Price of eucalyptus
R$40/m3
5.5.6 Economic value of pasture
The average values of data collected in the interviews with cattle ranchers are presented
in Table 5.6. The obtained value of income through inputting these data in the equation
of Garcia-Filho (1999) was R$3,618.55 per hectare. Considering the real/dollar rate of
2.15, the resulting economic value of pasture is U$1,683.05/hectare/year. The spatial
representation of this service is illustrated in Figure 5.6.
Table 5.6. Average values of data collected in interviews with cattle ranchers.
Groups of data
Specification
Average values Subtotal
Chemical products
R$28.50/ha
Diesel
R$90.00/ha
Intermediary consumption (CI)
Services (S)
Depreciation (D)
Value of production (PB)
Medicines
R$80.56/ha
Seeds
Feed
Land preparation
Temporary services
Salaries
Equipment
Animals (horses)
Production of milk/ha
Price of milk
Production of cheese/ha
Price of cheese
Production of herds/ha
Price of herds
R$24.15/ha
R$224.58/ha
R$17.33/ha
R$296.77/ha
R$125.00/ha
R$185.06
R$56.30
6,477 litres
R$0.40/litre
14 cheeses
R$4.00/cheese
7 herds
R$300.00/herd
R$447.79/ha
R$439.10
R$241.36
R$4,746.80
118
5.5.7 Option and non-use values
The estimated value of the forests for pharmaceutical uses, production of seeds, and
biodiversity conservation, obtained by benefits transfer, were U$0.15/ha/year,
U$53.00/ha/year, and U$60.39/ha/year, respectively. The spatial representation of these
values is illustrated in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7 Economic value map of option and non use values in the current land uses.
5.5.8 Total economic value and analysis of alternative scenarios
The obtained total economic value of the current land uses, i.e. 2,100 ha of old forest;
1,775 ha of young forest, 794 ha of eucalyptus, and 2,353 ha of pasture, in the study
area is U$30,724,118. This total refers to U$5,968,362 of direct uses, U$24,315,789 of
indirect uses, U$205,956 of option values, and U$234,011 of non-use values (Table
5.7). In hypothetical scenarios of conversion of all land uses to pasture, eucalyptus, and
119
old native forests, the total economic values change to U$11,994,687; U$16,877,897;
and U$49,421,117, respectively. The total economic value map of the current land uses
is illustrated in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8 Classes of total economic values of the current land uses around the Atibainha reservoir,
expressed in U$/hectare/year.
120
Table 5.7 Total economic values of current land uses around the Atibainha reservoir per year.
Classification
of values
Benefits
Values of
current land
use scenario
Values of
homogeneous
scenario of
pasture
Values of
homogeneous
scenario of
eucalyptus
Values of
homogeneous
scenario of old
native forest
Direct use
Provision of
tourism and
recreation
U$1,273,441
U$00
U$00
U$2,307,640
Forestry
production
U$734,704
U$00
U$6,497,597
U$00
Pasturage
U$3,960,217
U$11,818,377
U$00
U$00
Mitigation of
climate change
U$24,132,432
U$00.00
U$10,202,966
U$46,127,518
Protection of
soil and water
U$177,119
U$176,310
U$177,334
U$177,376
Maintenance
of soil fertility
U$6,238
U$00
U$00
U$11,305
Pharmaceutical
uses
U$581
U$00
U$00
U$1,053
Source of
seeds of native
trees
U$205,375
U$00
U$00
U$372,166
Conservation
of biodiversity
U$234,011
U$00
U$00
U$424,059
U$30,724,118
U$11,994,687
U$16,877,897
U$49,421,117
Indirect use
Option
Non-use
TEV
5.5.9 Costs and benefits of law enforcement
The estimated value of ecosystem services associated with the current land uses in
“Permanent Preservation Areas” is U$9.8 million (see Table 5.8). This is less than 50%
of the maximum TEV of ecosystem services that could be provided if these areas were
entirely occupied by old forests.
Respecting the law for letting native forests develop in these Permanent Preservation
Areas up to the achievement of the “F2” forest stage would mean an increase of U$12.7
million in the value of ecosystem services. This value can be interpreted as the cost of
the current non-observance to the forest law. It also points to how much theoretically
one could spend in promoting law enforcement in order to ensure the provision of the
respective ecosystem services.
121
Table 5.8 Values of ecosystem services in “Permanent Preservation Areas” (PPA) in various land
use scenarios
Current
land use in
PPA
Approximate
area (ha)
Value of ecosystem
services associated
to current land uses
in PPA
Value of ecosystem
services in homogeneous scenario of
forest F2
Current
losses
of
ecosystem services due
to non observance to
law
Forest F2
695
U$4,894,355.00
U$4,894,355.00
U$00.00
Forest F1
827
U$4,673,933.00
U$5,827,598.00
U$1,153,665.00
Eucalyptus
193
U$285,008.00
U$1,358,047.00
U$1,073,039.00
Pasture
1,504
U$31,632.00
U$10,579,034.00
U$10,547,402.00
TOTAL
3,219
U$9,884,928.00
U$22,659,034.00
U$12,774,106.00
Obs: Young forests are designated F1 and old forests are designated F2.
122
5.6 Discussion and Conclusion
Prior to this study, an estimation of the economic value of ecosystem services in the
lands around the Atibainha reservoir had only been obtained (in a rather rough fashion)
through extrapolation of numbers presented in large global studies such as the ones
reported by Costanza (1997) and by Pearce & Moran (1994).
A substantial refinement in estimation of these values has been achieved in the current
research through the integration, in geographic information systems, of specific physical
assessments of ecosystem services with procedures of economic valuation of various
land uses.
Comparison among hypothetical homogeneous land use scenarios, using their estimated
values, revealed that the highest TEV lies in old native forests, with U$49.4 million/year
in 7,022 hectares. Therefore, the average value per hectare is U$7,038/hectare/year.
In order to better understand this estimate and to compare it with results of other TEV
studies it is worth analysing the individual contributions of the various ecosystem
services to the total value (see Table 5.9), specially those services that were obtained
through original calculations rather than value transfers from the literature. Observing
each contributing value individually is also important because there is a great variation
in the ecosystem services selected in each study of TEV reviewed, as well as in the
methods for their assessment.
Table 5.9 Individual contributions for the average TEV of ecosystem services
Ecosystem service obtained
Average value (U$/hectare/year)
from native forests
Tourism
328.61
Mitigation of climate change
6569.00
Protection of soil and water
25.30
Maintenance of soil fertility
1.60
Pharmaceuthical uses
0.15
Seeds for native trees
53.00
Biodiversity conservation
60.40
TOTAL
7,038.06
123
Unsurprisingly, mitigation of climate change accounted for 93% of the total economic
value in the land surrounding the Atibainha reservoir, i.e. U$6,569/hectare/year. The
value of mitigation of climate change found in Torras’ (2000) survey of various studies
varied from U$59 to U$336/hectare/year. Results of the current study are much higher
than this range of values because they are based in much more recent estimates of costs
to reduce fossil fuel emissions (Stern, 2007) and current transactions in the carbon
markets (Capoor & Ambrosi, 2007), unavailable at the time of Torras’ work.
The estimated climate change mitigation value in Mexico using similar approaches (i.e.
the value of impacts of global warming) was U$3,633/hectare/year for tropical
evergreen forests (REF). This value is also lower than the one obtained around the lake
of Atibainha because it is based on a cost of U$20 for each ton of C (carbon) released in
the atmosphere, whereas the current study considered a cost of U$20 for each ton of
CO2 (carbon dioxide). Furthermore, some differences in the carbon storage capacity are
likely to occur between the Mexican forests and the forests assessed in this study.
Tourism was the second most valuable ecosystem service associated to native forests
around the lake of Atibainha. The average of U$328/hectare/year is substantially higher
than the estimate of U$37/hectare/year obtained by Torras (2000) for the Amazonian
forest, but it is close to the U$392/hectare/year obtained by Turpie et al. (2003) in South
Africa (FN: the $392 value was determined by considering an estimate of 7.4 billion
randes in 2.9 million hectares of native vegetation, and assuming that U$1 is equivalent
to 6.5 randes).
Nevertheless, comparison of these values requires caution because of the significant
differences between the specific characteristics of each study area. For instance, the
relatively high number of hotels per unit of area and the few economic alternatives
available in the lands around the Atibainha reservoir are some important factors that
may influence the value of the tourism ecosystem service. These local characteristics
were not found in the other studies of valuation of forests for tourism.
The possibility of comparing the values of maintenance of soil fertility and protection of
soil and water with results of other studies is also limited due to the different approaches
adopted in the estimations. Whereas some studies assume that maintenance of soil
fertility and conservation of soil are one unique ecosystem service whose value is
124
obtained through the costs of nutrient loss (Li at al., 2006; Guo et al., 2001; Torras,
2000), this study has considered these functions separately. Furthermore, rather than
using the previous studies’ approach of estimating losses of nutrients in the soil through
extrapolation of broad estimates of soil losses, the replacement costs of soil fertility was
calculated through comparisons of measurements of nutrient contents in the soil in
different land use scenarios, using results of analysis in laboratory of samples of soil, as
described in Chapter 4.
Analyses of the functions of conservation of soil and conservation of water were
integrated in this study through combining a model to predict sedimentation with
calculations of replacement cost of water storage capacity in the reservoir. Such
approach has not been found in other studies.
As demonstrated in Table 5.9, the total contribution to the TEV of maintenance of soil
fertility, conservation of soil and water, pharmaceutical uses, seeds for native trees, and
biodiversity conservation is relatively low, i.e. less than 2% of the average TEV of
ecosystem services, per hectare of forest.
Notably, among the ecosystem services valued in this study, mitigation of climate
change is the only one that can compete with opportunity costs of non-forest land uses.
The average estimated value of this service, i.e. U$6,569/hectare/year, is substantially
higher than the estimated income of U$1,683/hectare/year for cattle ranching and
U$925/hectare/year for production of eucalyptus.
Overall, if land use decisions in the region could be based on market systems with
capacity to capture all values of ecosystem services the landscape would probably be
almost entirely occupied by native forests. Nevertheless, it is currently composed by a
mosaic of land uses which is determined by market failures in the capture of these
values, and by the opportunity costs of eucalyptus and pasturage. Note that the logic of
land use decisions based on opportunity cost is somewhat contradicted by the presence
of eucalyptus, which has a value per hectare/year inferior to the value of pasture.
However, these are average values, i.e. some producers of eucalyptus may obtain
incomes higher than some cattle ranchers.
The characterization of market failures in capturing values of ecosystem services and
the estimated values of various benefits associated with land uses is also helpful for
comprehending the divergences between individual and social benefits. Profits from
125
cattle ranching and production of eucalyptus could be classified as individual benefits,
whereas several of the ecosystem services such as climate mitigation are of social
interest. Thus, human welfare in a social perspective depends on the existence of
driving forces of land use that prevent the landscape to be entirely converted into
pastures or plantations of eucalyptus.
Forest legislation could be a driving force to stimulate land use decisions towards the
provision of ecosystem services of social interest. If the existent legal obligation to
conserve native forests in Permanent Preservation Areas was respected, the maximum
provision of ecosystem services of social interest would be achieved at least in 40% of
the lands in the study area. The estimated value of these services is U$22.7 million/year.
However, it was demonstrated that the provision of ecosystem services in the current
land uses of PPA is equivalent to only 43% of this value, i.e. U$9.9 million/year,
because some of the lands are currently (and illegally) occupied by pastures, eucalyptus,
or young native forests. All the native forests would be old in the area if the PPAs were
properly enforced. This indicates a substantial failure in law enforcement, and confirms
the perception that command-and-control approaches such as legislation often fail in
ensuring a sound maintenance of ecosystem services (Jewitt, 2002; Holling & Meffe,
1996).
The effectiveness of legislation can be improved through integration with other possible
driving forces of land use such as mechanisms of payments for ecosystem services
(PES). The effectiveness of PES schemes depends on their capacity to capture values of
ecosystem services. Changes in land use decisions may occur even if such values are
not integrally captured; for example, it is clear that carbon trading alone could justify
conservation in the case of the Atibainha reservoir area.
The captured values have to be sufficient to compete with the opportunity costs of the
development (such as pasturage and production of eucalyptus). However, it should also
be noted that some initiatives of PES in Central America exist where the values of
compensation to providers of ecosystem services were inferior to the opportunity costs.
This can be justified by the presence of sometimes significant secondary non-cash
benefits, such as opportunities to implement socially desirable activities, security of
income, income diversification and education/training (Kosoy et al., 2007; REF).
126
The results obtained in this study, including the economic value maps, can be used as
the broad basis to develop PES schemes according to the availability of sources of
funds, as well as to the interest in some specific ecosystem service.
Currently the schemes of payments for forest services associated to water are less
developed than those related to carbon. The provision of water as an ecosystem service
is already being charged to the consumers in the state of São Paulo (CBH-PCJ, 2006),
but substantial improvements are needed in these mechanisms to convert such payments
into effective compensation for land uses that favour the provision of water. Indeed, the
results of this study provide an opportunity to improve these existing mechanisms. The
economic value maps for example can be helpful in such improvements by identifying
sites where resources from water charging can be best allocated.
As noted above, mitigation of climate change (valued at $6,569/hectare/year) is the only
ecosystem service that can compete with the opportunity costs of non-forest land uses
(valued at U$1,683/hectare/year for cattle ranching and U$925/hectare/year for
production of eucalyptus). The development of carbon markets in the area therefore
appears to be a priority for the establishment of markets for ecosystem services. Apart
from the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which has the potential to consider
conservation of forests as an eligible activity in the future, voluntary markets
independent of CDM have also been developed (Tayab, 2006) and may constitute a
source of payments for ecosystem services.
Besides the evolving market for services related to water and carbon there is also an
increasing interest in PES systems focused on bundles of ecosystem services
(Duraiappah, 2006). Examples of such mechanisms include eco-labeling projects,
tradable development rights, NGO conservation projects, and government programs of
watershed management (Lakany et al., 2007). One important advantage of these
systems is the opportunity for capturing values of more ecosystem services. However,
their functionality depends on the knowledge of the various services to be considered. In
these cases the maps produced in the current research are useful for revealing values, as
well as for indicating where these values reside.
The results of this study have more far reaching implications than simply supporting the
development of PES schemes. By revealing how the TEV of ecosystem services can be
affected by land use changes, these results can be used for planning future interventions
in the landscape in order to prevent decline in human welfare as well as to define
127
adequate compensation for some inevitable losses in ecosystem services. This
translation of ecosystem service science into policy guidelines is crucial in regions that
are suitable to intense losses of natural habitats such as the Atlantic Forest.
128
5.7 References
Adams C., Aznar C., Seroa-da-Mota R. S., Ortiz R.A., Reid J., 2003. Valoração
Econômica do Parque Estadual Morro do Diabo (SP). Conservation Strategy Fund, São
Paulo.
Adger W.N, Brown K., Cervigni R., Moran D., 2002. Tropical Forest Values in Mexico.
In: Pearce D., Pearce C., Palmer C., Valuing the Environment in Developing Countries:
Case Studies. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
Anderson D., 2006. Paper for the Stern Review: Costs and finance of carbon abatement
in the energy sector. In Stern, N., 2007. The Economics of climate change: the Stern
review. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Andrigueti E.J., 2004. O Maior desafio é a manutenção da qualidade das águas
(http://www.agds.org.br/midiaambiente/entrevistas07_2.asp, 16/07/2004). Agência de
Comunicação Mídia Ambiente, Associação Global de Desenvolvimento Sustentável –
AGDS, São Bernardo do Campo.
Bateman I.J., Carson R.T., Day B., Hanemann M., Hanley N., Hett T., Jones-Lee M.,
Loomes G., Mourato S., Ozdemiroglu E., Pearce D.W., Sugden R., Swanson J., 2002.
Economic Valuation with Stated Preferences Techniques: A Manual. Edward Elgar,
Cheltenham.
Bateman I.J., Lovett A.A., Brainard J.S., 2002. Applied Environmental Economics: a
GIS approach to cost-benefit analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bertoni J., Lombardi-Neto F., 2005. Conservação do Solo. Ícone Editora, São Paulo.
Bockstael N.E., Freeman A.M., Kopp R.J., Portney P.R., Smith V.K., 2000. On
Measuring Economic Values for Nature. Environmental Science & Technilogy,
34:1384-1389.
Braga B., 2004. Estudo Técnico: Subsídios para a análise do pedido de outorga do
Sistema Cantareira e para a definição das condições de operação dos seus reservatórios.
ANA – Agência Nacional de Águas, Brasília.
129
Brasil, 1965. Codigo Florestal Brasileiro: lei 4.771 de 15 de setembro de 1965. Câmara
dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brown S., Lugo A.E., 1984. Biomass of Tropical Forests - A New Estimate Based on
Forest Volumes. Science, 223:1290-1293.
Capoor K., Ambrosi P., 2007. State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2007. The World
Bank, Washington.
CBH-PCJ, 2000. Situação dos recursos hídricos das bacias hidrográficas dos rios
Piracicaba, Capivari e Jundiaí. Comitê das Bacias Hidrográficas dos Rios Piracicaba,
Capivari e Jundiaí, Americana.
CBH-PCJ, 2006. Fundamentos da Cobrança pelo Uso dos Recursos Hídricos nas Bacias
PCJ. Comitê das Bacias Hidrográficas dos Rios Piracicaba, Capivari e Jundiaí,
Americana.
Common M., Stagl S., 2005. Ecological Economics: An Introduction. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Costanza R., d'Arge R., Groot R., Farber S., Grasso M., Hannon B., Limburg K., Naeem
S., O'Neill R.V., Paruelo J., Raskin R.G., Sutton P., Belt M., 1997. The value of the
world's ecosystem services and natural capital . Nature, 387: 253-260.
Daily G.C., 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems.
Island Press, Washington.
Day B., 2002. Valuing visits to game parks in South Africa. In: Pearce, D.; Pearce, C.;
Palmer, C. Valuing the Environment in Developing Countries. Edward Elgar,
Cheltenham.
Ditt E.H., Knight J., Ghazoul J., Padua C.V., 2006. Legislation to protect Atlantic
Forest landscapes in Southeastern Brazil: incentives, opportunities and obstacles. 5th
European Conference on Ecological Restoration, Greifswald.
Duraiappah A.K., 2006. Markets for Ecosystem Services: a potential tool for
Multilateral Environmental Agreements. IISD, Winnipeg.
130
Eade J.D.O., Moran D., 1996. Spatial Economic Valuation: Benefits Transfer using
Geographical Information Systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 48(2):97110.
Fadini A.A.B., Carvalho P.F., 2004. Os Usos da Água do Moinho: Um estudo na Bacia
Hidrográfica do Ribeirão do Moinho. Annals of the II Encontro Nacional da Associaço
Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Campinas.
Fankhauser S., 1995. Valuing Climate Change: the economics of the greenhouse.
Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
Fearnside P.M., 2005. Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: History, Rates, and
Consequences. Conservation Biology, 19:680-688.
Freeman A.M., 2003. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values:
Theory and Methods. Resources for the Future, Washington.
Garcia-Filho D., 1999. Guia Metodológico: Diagnóstico dos Sistemas Agrários.
INCRA/FAO, Brasília.
Garrod G., Willis K.G., 2001. Economic Valuation of the Environment. Edward Elgar,
Cheltenham.
Guo Z., Xiao X., Gan Y., Zheng Y., 2001. Ecosystem functions, services and their
values – a case study in Xingshan County of China. Ecological Economics, 38:141-154.
Haab T.C., McConnell K.E., 2003. Valuing Environmental and Natural Resources: the
Econometrics of Non-market Valuation. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
Hoeffel J.L., Fadini A.A.B., Machado M.K., Lima F.B., 2006a. Conservation Units,
Tourism, and Environmental Impacts in the Bragantina Region, São Paulo, Brazil. In:
Harmon, David, (ed.) People, Places, and Parks: Proceedings of the 2005 George
Wright Society Conference on Parks, Protected Areas, and Cultural Sites. The George
Wright Society, Hancock.
Hoeffel J.L., Fadini A.A.B., Machado M.K., Reis J.C., 2006b. Percepção Ambiental e
Conflitos de Uso dos Recursos Naturais - Um Estudo na APA do Sistema Cantareira,
131
São Paulo, Brasil. Annals of the III Encontro Nacional da Associaço Nacional de PósGraduação e Pesquisa em Ambiente e Sociedade. ANPPAS, Brasília
Holling C.S., Meffe G.K., 1996. Command-and-control and the Pathology of Natural
Resource Management. Conservation Biology, 10(2): 328-337.
IBGE, 2000. Censo Demográfico. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Rio de
Janeiro.
IBGE, 2005. Produção da Pecuária Municipal. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e
Estatistica, Rio de Janeiro.
IBGE, 2006. Produção da Extração Vegetal e Silvicultura 2004; Malha municipal
digital do Brasil: situação em 2001. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica, Rio
de Janeiro.
IPT, 2007. Plano Diretor de Nazaré Paulista: Parecer Técnico 11.501-301. Instituto de
Pesquisas Técnológicas, São Paulo.
Jewitt G., 2002. Can Integrated Water Resources Management sustain the provision of
ecosystem goods and services? Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 27: 887-895.
Kahn J.R., 2005. The economic approach to environmental natural resources. Thomson
South-Western, Ohio.
Kosoy N., Martinez-Tuna M., Muradian R., Martinez-Alier J., 2007. Payments for
environmental services in watersheds: Insights from a comparative study of three cases
in Central America. Ecological Economics, 61:446-455.
Lakany H.E., Jenkins M., Richards M., 2007. Background paper on means of
implementation: contribution by PROFOR to discussions at UNFF-7. PROFOR –
Program on Forests, Washington.
Li J., Ren Z.Y., Zhou Z.X., 2006. Ecosystem services and their values: a case study in
the Qinba mountains of China. Ecological Research, 21(4):597-604
132
Motta R.S., 1997. Manual para valoração econômica dos recursos naturais. Instituto de
Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada & Ministério do Meio Ambiente, dos Recursos Hídricos
e da Amazônia Legal, Rio de Janeiro.
Murray B.C., 2003. Economics of Forest Carbon Sequestration. In: Sills, E.O; Abt, K.L.
Forests in a Market Economy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Myers N., 1988. Threatened Biotas: “Hot Spots” in Tropical Forests. The
Environmentalist, 8(3):187-208.
Myers N., 1999. The Biodiversity Challenge: Expanded Hot-Spots Analysis.
Environmentalist, 10(4):243-256.
OECD, 2002. Handbook of biodiversity valuation: A guide for policy makers.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris.
Pearce D., 1993. Economic values and the natural world. Earthscan, London.
Pearce D., 1999. Economics and Environment: Essays on Ecological Economics and
Sustainable Development. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
Pearce D., 2001. The Economic Value of Forest Ecosystems. Ecosystem Health,
7(4):284-96.
Pearce D., Atkinson G., Mourato S., 2006. Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment:
recent developments. OECD, Paris.
Pearce D., Moran D., 1994. The economic Value of Biodiversity. Earthscan
Publications Ltd, London.
Pearce D.W., Purushothaman S., 1995. The economic value of plant-based
pharmaceuticals. In: Intelectual property rights and biodiversity conservation: an
interdisciplinary analysis of the values of medicinal plants. Cambeidge University Press,
Cambridge.
Pearce D., Turner R.K., 1990. Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment.
Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hertfordshire.
133
Sheeran K.A., 2006. Forest conservation in the Philippines: A cost-effective approach to
mitigating climate change? Ecological Economics, 58:338-349.
Shyamsundar P., Kramer R.A., 1996. Tropical Forest Protection: An Empirical Analysis
of the Costs Borne by Local People. Journal of Environmental Economics and
Management, 31:129-144.
Silva A.M., Schulz H.E., Camargo P.B., 2003. Erosão e hidrosedimentologia em bacias
hidrográficas. Rima Editora, São Carlos.
Simpson R.D., Sedjo R.A., Reid J.W., 1996. Valuing Biodiversity for Use in
Pharmaceutical Research. Journal of Political Economy, 104(1):163-185.
Stern N., 2007. The Economics of climate change: the Stern review. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Swanson T., Mourato S., Swierbinski J., Kontoleon A., 2002. Conflicts in conservation:
the many values of the black rhinoceros. In: Pearce, D.; Pearce, C.; Palmer, C. Valuing
the Environment in Developing Countries. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
Tayab N., 2006. Exploring the market for voluntary carbon offsets. International
Institute for Environment and Development, London.
Torras M., 2000. The total economic value of Amazonian deforestation 1978-1993.
Ecological Economics, 33:283-297.
Troy A., Wilson M.A., 2006. Mapping ecosystem services: Practical challenges and
opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer. Ecological Economics, 60:435-449.
Turner R.K., Pearce D, Bateman I., 1994. Environmental Economics: An Elementary
Introduction. Harvester Wheatsheaf, Hertfordshire.
Turpie J.K., Heydenrych B.J., Lamberth S.J., 2003. Economic value of terrestrial and
marine biodiversity in the Cape Floristic Region: implications for defining effective and
socially optimal conservation strategies. Biological Conservation, 112:233-251.
Van-Raij B., 1991. Fertilidade do solo e adubação. Editora Ceres, Piracicaba.
134
Van-Raij B., Cantarella H., Quaggio J.H., Furlani A.M.C., 1997. Boletim Técnico 100:
Recomendações de adubação e Calagem para o Estado de São Paulo. Instituto
Agronômico – Fundag, Campinas.
Whately M., Cunha P., 2007. Cantareira 2006: um olhar sobre o maior manancial de
água da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo.
Wilson M.A., Hoehn J.P., 2006. Valuing environmental goods and services using
benefit transfer: The state-of-the art and science. Ecological Economics, 60: 335-342.
Wischmeier W.H., Smith D.D., 1978. USDA Agriculture Handbook, number 537:
Predicting rainfall erosion losses: a guide to conservation planning. United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington.
135
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROPOSING
MECHANISMS OF PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES IN THE BRAZILIAN ATLANTIC FOREST
6.1 Introduction
The increasing awareness of the critical role of forests in providing valued services such
as climate regulation and conservation of water, together with an increasing belief in the
effectiveness of market-based mechanisms for conservation, have stimulated the
development of systems of payments for ecosystem services (PES) in several countries
(Pagiola et al., 2005a; Pagiola et al., 2005b; Pagiola et al., 2005c; Rosa et al., 2004;
Tognetti et al., 2005; Landell-Mills & Porras, 2002; Grieg-Gran et al., 2005).
These systems can be defined as voluntary transactions in which the provision of
ecosystem services, or some land use that secures the provision of ecosystem services,
is paid by beneficiaries of these services (Wunder, 2005, 2006, 2007). The idea behind
the PES systems is to prevent loss of forest and their associated ecosystem services
through incorporating these services in market systems that capture their values,
translating them into actual cash flows. This allows conservation activities to compete
with the opportunity costs of alternative land uses (Pearce, 2004; Kosoy et al., 2007).
The PES systems have a logic which is similar to the logic of other market initiatives:
buyers and sellers (of ecosystem services) can trade by allocating resources according to
a price which is acceptable to both sides (Duraiappah, 2006). This form of bargain
between providers and beneficiaries of ecosystem services is an alternative to the
conventional conservation strategies based on command-and-control mechanisms. It has
the advantage of minimizing the need of government intervention (Pearce, 2004).
Although PES initiatives are driven by conservation goals they have also the potential to
be designed to be pro-poor, because poor providers of ecosystem services can benefit
from payments made by richer buyers of these services (Rosa et al., 2004; Grieg-Gran
136
et al., 2005; Wunder, 2005; Pagiola et al., 2005a). Furthermore, several developing
countries can contribute substantially for the provision of ecosystem services, whereas
willingness to pay for these services is often found in developed countries (Pearce &
Moran, 1994).
There are of course several criticisms of PES. On the one hand, it is not clear as yet how
effective these systems are for conservation (Wunder, 2007; Sanchez-Azofeifa, 2007).
Furthermore, there are fears about potential negative social impacts on directly or
indirectly affected communities, particularly the landless poor. For example, a literature
review by Wunder (2006), notes that these systems can affect negatively the
communities in their legitimate aspirations of land development, as well as their
culturally not-for-profit conservation values.
But, despite these possible problems, well-designed PES initiatives do have the exciting
potential to achieve the dual objective of conservation and poverty alleviation, giving
landowners the right incentives for sustained conservation (Pearce, 2004). In developing
countries there are now a number of recent initiatives of PES, following the relative
success of a pioneering Costa Rica experience that was initiated in 1997.
By considering the possibility of PES systems of being an alternative approach to
conventional mechanisms of conservation, it is worth investigating how these systems
can be implemented in areas where failures of command-and-control mechanisms are
most evident. Various examples are found within the Atlantic Forest biome in Brazil.
Despite the existence of legislation for the protection of Atlantic Forest (Brasil, 2006;
Brasil, 1965), many areas within that biome remain highly vulnerable to degradation.
Such degradation is normally associated with high concentrations of people interacting
with and impacting on natural resources.
It was mentioned in Chapter 2 that more than 10% of the Brazilian population live in the
region of the Cantareira System, within the boundaries of the Atlantic Forest biome.
Chapter 3 revealed that the existing legislation to protect the forests has not been fully
respected and the fragmented landscape is likely to continue to suffer from further
losses of Atlantic Forest in the absence of corrective measures. Significant decline in
some ecosystem services such as climate mitigation and conservation of soil and water
are expected to occur as a consequence of the transformation in the landscape,
according to estimates presented in Chapter 4. The value of the potential losses of
137
ecosystem services caused by removal of remnants of Atlantic Forest in that region are
estimated to be higher than U$26 million per year as demonstrated in Chapter 5.
The findings of these previous chapters are important in assisting with the potential for
development of a PES mechanism in the region of Cantareira System. The effectiveness
of a PES scheme in stimulating conservation or restoration of Atlantic Forest depends
on various conditions: i) existence of sources of funds for the payments; ii)
attractiveness of the PES system for providers of ecosystem services; and iii)
development of a structure of governance for the payment mechanism.
These conditions are discussed in detail in this chapter, which also explores the
challenges and opportunities to integrate the currently available scientific information
about ecosystem services with policy mechanisms for promoting conservation of
Atlantic Forest in the lands around the Atibainha reservoir.
138
6.2 Pioneering initiatives of PES
Some of the most developed pioneering experiences of PES systems in the world have
been in operation in Costa Rica since 1997 (Miranda et al., 2006; Zbinden & Lee, 2005;
Sanchez-Azofeifa, 2007; Kosoy et al., 2007). Understanding the obstacles and
opportunities for these experiences is helpful for planning PES in other regions.
The PES systems in Costa Rica derived from programs of incentives to reforestation in
the decades of 1980 and 1990. These programs were created due to the decrease in
timber supply associated to high rates of deforestation in the country. The incentives
were initially based on tax rebates for large forestry companies and latter evolved to the
creation of credits for farmers to invest in reforestation. Subsequently, the programs
were extended towards non-reforestation activities such as forest management and
protection of forests (Pagiola, 2002; Miranda et al., 2006).
Four forestry laws were created over the years to facilitate the development of these
systems of incentive. The first law, in 1969, was to incentive reforestation but without
impeding deforestation. The second law, in 1986, restricted logging near a water
channel and stimulated reforestation through the creation of forest credit certificates.
The third law, in 1990, prohibited all land use changes and introduced the PES, focusing
on the promotion of management of natural forest. Finally, the fourth law, in 1996,
addressed PES to the protection of natural forests (Miranda et al., 2006).
This last law has changed the source of funding from the government budget to
payments from beneficiaries. Moreover, this law also created FONAFIFO, an agency to
administer the program (Pagiola, 2002). In 2001, another law determined that
FONAFIFO should receive 3.5% of the fossil fuel tax raised by the Costa Rican
government and allocate these funds to the PES scheme. Other sources of funds have
also contributed to FONAFIFO to a lesser extent, including sales of carbon reduction
emission credits, the World Bank, a grant from the Global Environmental Facility
(GEF), and private contracts with hydroelectric producers (Miranda et al., 2006;
Pagiola, 2002).
Based on the set of laws mentioned above the Costa Rican PES systems have been
implemented through any of three possible types of contracts. The first required
landowners to protect their forests for 5 years; the second to develop reforestation and
139
maintain the reforested areas for 15 years; and the third to adopt sustainable forest
management practices, although this type of contract was later discontinued in 2000
(Sanchez-Azofeifa et al, 2007). These activities were paid on a per hectare basis, using
the following reference values: U$201 per ha/year for forest protection, U$516 per
ha/year for reforestation, and U$314 per ha/year for sustainable forest management
(Miranda et al., 2006). In 2003, the plantation of trees (for agroforestry) was added into
the set of eligible activities for payment. The value of U$0.60 per tree was adopted for
this activity in agroforestry systems (Rosa et al., 2004).
Four types of ecosystem services were recognized by the Forestry law: mitigation of
climate change, watershed protection, biodiversity conservation, and protection of
scenic beauty (Miranda et al., 2006). However, the initial Costa Rican PES contracts
failed to recognize that different land uses can provide very different levels of these
services (Pagiola et al., 2005). Rather than attempting to measure the services, it has
been assumed that an identically valued bundle of these services is provided by each
hectare of land (Sanchez-Azofeifa et al, 2007). Thus, one important challenge in the
system might be to target particular ecological areas and differentiate payments
accordingly.
Landowners interested in participating in the PES program should submit various
documents, including a map of their properties, to a regional office of MINAE, the
Ministry of Environment and Energy. After the approval of MINAE a contract is
prepared and payments are made by FONAFIFO once a year (Miranda, 2006). Through
these contracts the landowners also transfer rights to the greenhose-gas-mitigation
potential to the government (Sanchez-Azofeifa et al., 2007).
From 1997 to 2001 the total area submitted to PES was 284,422 hectares, i.e. more than
5% of the territory of Costa Rica, including 239,620 hectares of forest protection,
18,737 hectares of reforestation, and 26,026 hectares of forest management (Zbinden &
Lee, 2005).
As it can be noted, the PES systems in Costa Rica have been developed in a gradual
manner through both adapting programs and policies created previously for other
purposes than the provision of ecosystem services, and developing complementary
guidelines that made these systems attractive for the participants. These might be some
of the important lessons to be considered for the success of implementation of PES in
other regions of the world. However, in further analysing the success of PES systems in
140
terms of their governance and sustainability, it is crucial to verify if their main purpose
of ensuring the provision of ecosystem services is being attained.
A possible way for such verification is gathering information about additionality, i.e. the
difference in service provision between the with-PES scenario and the without-PES
scenario (Wunder, 2006). By developing an analysis of the impacts of PES program in
Costa Rica, based on the spatial and temporal distribution of both PES contracts and
land uses, Sanchez-Azofeifa et al (2007) found no impact of the concentration of PES
contracts in the rate of deforestation. Moreover, these contracts were found to be
concentrated mostly in hydrologic basins with little importance for the provision of
water.
Two possible issues should be considered for interpreting these results. The first is the
fact that the PES contracts are fixed on a per hectare basis and no distinction is made
among the various areas in terms of the importance for the provision of ecosystem
services. The second issue is the possibility of lands with lower profitability to
predominate in the program due to the lack of land use alternatives. In another study,
Sierra & Russman (2006) have not detected impacts of the Costa Rican PES in the
decision to conserve the forest, when PES and non-PES farms were compared.
However, they found significant differences in farmers’ decision to allow the forest to
regenerate in cleared areas.
Further the provision of ecosystem services there are several other possible positive
impacts from PES programs, including economic and social benefits (Landell-Mills &
Porras, 2002). Economic benefits include: income from the PES, diversification of
sources of income, and employment opportunities, among others. Social benefits refer
to: social institution strengthening, improved recreational and cultural opportunities,
knowledge and education, land tenure security, and skills development. Most of these
benefits have been encountered in the Costa Rican PES program (Grieg-Gran et al.,
2005).
In summary, the Costa Rican PES systems are an important reference point due to their
novelty and the abundance of lessons to be learned. Similar PES initiatives have now
started in several other countries, including Ecuador, Chile, El Salvador, Nicaragua,
Honduras, and Bolivia (Grieg_Grain et al., 2005; Rosa et al., 2004; Kosoy et al., 2007;
Pagiola et al., 2002; Furtado et al., 1999).
141
6.3 PES initiatives in Brazil
For the purposes of the current discussion the Brazilian initiatives relating to PES can be
conveniently classified either as “individual experiences” or as “policies”, according to
the extent of their coverage and to their governance strategy.
Individual experiences of PES normally have a restricted area of implementation and
their rules of governance are defined through negotiations involving the payer and the
provider of ecosystem services, eventually with intermediation of an NGO. Examples
include some projects of forest restoration with the purposes of removing carbon from
the atmosphere. One of them has been implemented in the state of Mato Grosso, within
the boundaries of the Amazonian Forest, financed by an automobile company (GiregGran, 2005; Yu, 2004). Another project has been implemented in the Atlantic Forest, in
the state of Paraná, with funds from oil and energy companies (Tiepolo et al., 2002; Yu,
2004).
These projects were initiated before the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol and do not fit
the eligibility criteria for generating carbon credits through the Clean Development
Mechanism (IPCC, 2001). But even after the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, there is
still an increasing interest in voluntary markets for carbon, i.e. in projects of carbon
sequestration that are not submitted to the approval by CDM entities (Tayab, 2006).
These voluntary initiatives can make a substantial contribution to overcoming one of the
main challenges of the development of PES systems, which is the identification and
maintenance of sources of payments for the services.
One of the pioneering Brazilian initiatives of PES that can be classified as a policy is a
federal program of rural development in the Amazonian Forest, known as “Proambiente”. This program has been planned for financing environmental costs that are
defined as the additional costs of adapting productive systems of rural properties to fit
criteria of sustainability. These costs are to be paid with resources from the “Fundo de
Remuneração de Custos e Serviços Ambientais” (FRCSA). The FRCSA is a fund to be
created from various national and international contributions, including government and
private sources (Mattos, 2001). According to this author, the government source of
funds for FRCSA should ideally come from the Ministry of Environment in order to
ensure soundness, continuity, and credibility.
142
Unfortunately no public information was found about any specific source of funds
already in operation for the Pro-ambiente program. Therefore one of the main
challenges for the feasibility of this program is probably the creation of an effective
fund for the payments. Other challenges, pointed out by Hirata (2006), include: the
probable resistance of the government structure to the operation of programs with high
complexity such as the Pro-ambiente; obstacles in achieving legal feasibility of
payments for ecosystem services; and difficulties in scaling up pilot-programs for a
broad coverage of Amazonia and other biomes.
Another policy initiative of PES in Brazil is a program of incentives for sustainable uses
of forest, called “Bolsa Floresta”, which is part of the climate change policy of the state
of Amazonas (Amazonas, 2007). This program provides a monthly payment of R$50.00
to local residents that contribute to the preservation of the environment within protected
areas. The funding of Bolsa Floresta comes from the Climate Change Fund, which was
initiated in 2007 through an initial contribution of R$20 million (approximately U$9.3
million) from the state government. Revenues from this fund will be used in making the
payments. In September 2006 one hundred families had received the monthly payments,
and the government’s goal is to involve 60,000 families (http:// noticias.correioweb.
com.br/materias.php?id=2719797&sub=Brasil, 17/09/2007).
A third example of policy initiative for the PES schemes in Brazil is the development of
a national policy for water resources (NPWR), and the creation in 1997 of the National
System of Management of Water Resources (NSMWR). One of the main instruments of
the NPWR is the system of charging for the use of water as described in Chapter 2. The
purpose of this instrument is to recognize the economic value of water, to encourage its
rational use, and to generate funds for programs and actions for water resources plans
(Brasil, 1997).
Within this framework, a programme that may drive funds for payments of ecosystem
services is the “Programa Produtor de Água” (Water Producer Program), developed by
the National Agency of Water which is one of the institutions that compose the
NSMWR. This program differs from the previous two examples due to the fact that it
has not been conceptualized specifically for the conditions of the Amazonian Forest.
Another important difference is that it contains a procedure for quantifying
environmental benefits according to land use and management. Specifically, estimates
of reduction in erosion and sedimentation due to improvement of land use practices and
143
management are used to determine the values of payments for ecosystem services
(Chaves et al., 2004a; Chaves et al., 2004b).
The “Produtor de Água” program is being implemented in Extrema, which is a
municipality in the State of Minas Gerais, less than 70 Km from Nazaré Paulista. Funds
for this program are coming from a partnership between the city council of Extrema and
the non-governmental organization “The Nature Conservancy”. Legal arrangements for
its implementation have been made by the city council, including a law that creates a
local programme for management of water resources (Extrema, 2005), a decree of law
that establishes criteria for the program (Extrema, 2006a), and a decree of law that
authorizes the city council to implement the system of payments (Extrema, 2006b).
The three policy initiatives of PES exemplified above have been developed according to
various site specific characteristics that must be understood for enabling the replication
of such experiences to other regions. The development of PES systems to promote
conservation of Atlantic Forest around the Atibainha reservoir can be inspired by these
three examples, but it is important to be aware of some of their limitations. The “Proambiente” and “Bolsa Floresta” programmes are being implemented in areas of
Amazonia where the forest is part of the productive system of local residents. Therefore
these programmes can mostly influence decisions of how to manage the forests in a
sustainable way rather than pure conservation.
Furthermore, the size of rural plots of lands occupied by families in Amazonia is
typically several times higher than in areas of Atlantic Forest. For example, the size of
the holding of some families that participate in the Pro-Ambiente program in the State
of Acre is larger than 100 hectares, whereas the average size of properties in Nazaré
Paulista is less than 10 hectares.
The criteria for evaluating the practices of land use and management suggested by
Chaves et al. (2004a) for the “Produtor de Água” programme also have some
restrictions in respect to the quantification of ecosystem services. The methods of
quantification are most applicable in the productive areas of agriculture. There is a gap
to be filled, which is the design of a PES system that considers quantification of
ecosystem services both in productive lands and in forest areas that should be preserved,
and not exploited for production.
144
The current chapter contributes to filling this gap by proposing a set of procedures that
could be adopted for the development of PES systems around the Atibainha reservoir,
both in forest and non-forest areas, using information obtained in this research such as
the economic value maps of ecosystem services.
145
6.4 Ecosystem services and land uses for the proposed PES
6.4.1 Social and private benefits of land uses
As explained in chapter 5, there are private and social benefits associated to the main
land uses around the Atibainha reservoir. Their respective estimated economic values
are presented in Table 6.1. These benefits can be classified as “ecosystem services”
(ES), referring to benefits obtained from forest ecosystems, or as “productive systems”
(PS), referring to profit obtained from cattle ranching or plantation of eucalyptus.
Table 6.1 Total economic values obtained in scenarios of pasture, eucalyptus and native forest, and
respective beneficiaries (values per year).
Benefits
Beneficiaries
Pasture
Eucalyptus
Native forest
Society
U$176,310
U$10,380,300
U$49,421,110
Individuals
U$11,818,377
U$6,497,597
U$00
U$11,994,687
U$16,877,897
U$49,421,117
Mitigation of climate change
Conservation of soil and water
Maintenance of soil fertility
Ecosystem services
Pharmaceutical uses
Production of seeds
Conservation of biodiversity
Tourism
Profits from
productive systems
Forestry production
Pasturage
TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE
If the landscape is managed in order to maximize the availability of ecosystem services,
native forests will obviously predominate and, according to Table 6.1, the total
economic value of the land use could hypothetically go up to U$49 million per year.
Similarly, in hypothetical homogeneous land use scenarios determined by the
opportunity costs of eucalyptus plantations and pastures, the total economic value of
land use could potentially reach U$16,877,897 and U$11,994,687 per year, respectively,
some much lower figure than under a forest land use scenario.
The large extension of land presently occupied by pastures and eucalyptus evidences
that land use decisions around the Atibainha reservoir have not been based upon the
social benefits depicted in Table 6.1. But the capture of these values could occur and
thereby the creation of real cash flows that can be used to compensate local land users
for the provision of ecosystem services, through the development of systems of
146
payments for ecosystem services. This would allow the social benefits to “count” and to
compete with the private benefits.
6.4.2 Possible eligible ecosystem services
The values of ecosystem services obtained in chapter 5 can be used for planning PES
schemes focused on each of the services individually, as well as on bundles of
ecosystem services. However, it is essential to consider mitigation of climate change as
an eligible service for the effectiveness of the PES system, because this is the only
service whose value was found to be higher than the opportunity costs of cattle ranching
and production of eucalyptus.
The definition of which ecosystem services can be eligible for PES is probably more
important in the proposed PES system around the Atibainha reservoir than in the Costa
Rican systems. The reason is that, despite four categories of ecosystem services being
considered eligible for payments in Costa Rica, these payments are made in a per
hectare basis (Rosa et al., 2004) and do not consider variations in the provision of
ecosystem services that may occur at different locations (Pagiola et al., 2005).
The economic value maps produced in this thesis, by indicating with relative accuracy
the spatial variations in ecosystem services values, constitute an important tool to be
used in a potential PES system around the Atibainha reservoir. For the purposes of
demonstrating the functionality of the PES system proposed in this thesis, the payments
are being considered to be for bundles of ecosystem services, using the total economic
values of all the services listed in Table 6.1. However, with the exception of mitigation
of climate change, excluding some of the other less valuable services will probably not
affect the functionality of the system.
6.4.3 Possible eligible activities
In order to implement a PES system it is necessary to determine the activities that can
be compensated by the payments. Only the services provided by natural forests are the
focus of the proposed PES system, despite the fact that it was demonstrated in chapters
4 and 5 that other land uses such as eucalyptus can also substantially provide some
services like carbon storage in trees. Two activities are being considered: restoration of
natural forests and conservation of natural forests. These are also the activities currently
considered for PES in Costa Rica (Sanchez-Azofeifa et al., 2007).
147
Forest management may not be considered in the study area because it is not permitted
by the Atlantic Forest Law (Brasil, 2006). Agroforestry systems are not being
considered either because they are not common among the current productive systems.
Furthermore, their implementation would require substantial efforts in terms of
technical assistance.
148
6.5 Law enforcement and the potential for PES
In order to verify the feasibility of implementation of PES systems in the lands around
the Atibainha reservoir it is necessary to consider some institutional and legal
restrictions to non-forest land uses.
Current institutional restrictions to non forest uses are associated with the remit of
Sabesp, the water company, which holds approximately 20% of the land in the study
area and, according to its scope, may not use the land for productive systems such as
forestry and cattle ranching. On the other hand, legal restrictions refer to the Atlantic
Forest Law and the Forest Code. The Atlantic Forest law states that mature remnants of
Atlantic Forest have to be conserved (Brasil, 2006).
The Forest Code is another law which determines that margins of water bodies, steep
slopes and top of mountains have to be dedicated to conservation of forests. Such areas
are called “Permanent Preservation Areas” (PPA). This is in addition to the “legal
reserves” that correspond to 20% of the area beyond the PPA in every rural property
(Brasil, 1965).
But results presented in Chapter 3 show that the Forest Code and the Atlantic Forest
Law are only partially enforced in the study area. Figure 6.1 presents a geographical
interpretation of legislation and highlights areas of non-enforcement in approximately
50% of the areas of PPA. The map also shows deforestation in many lands of Sabesp,
indicating that there is also a substantial non-observance of the institutional restrictions.
Currently, there are 3,463 hectares of native forests outside PPA, but protected by the
Atlantic Forest Law. Moreover, there are 3,058 hectares of PPA, including forest and
non-forest areas. These areas together correspond to approximately 85% of the study
area. Obviously, if the current command-and-control mechanisms, i.e. the forest
legislation, were successful, conservation of local natural resources would not depend
on further mechanisms such as PES. However, the identified failures in law
enforcement highlight the importance of creating complementary conservation
mechanisms.
Command-and-control mechanisms and PES can coexist and be supportive of each
other (Wunder, 2006). The opportunity cost of cattle ranching and pasturage, calculated
in Chapter 5, are probably the main reasons for the non-compliance with the laws. PES
149
systems might be effective tools to promote law enforcement by awarding economic
incentive to the conservation of ecosystem services, making them therefore privately
more attractive. Furthermore, landowners would probably be more receptive to PES
systems in areas where land use is limited, than in lands where agriculture, forestry and
cattle ranching are permitted.
It is important to consider the opportunity cost of land use, the values of payments for
ecosystem services, the co-benefits of the PES system, and the desire of farmers to
comply with the laws, for planning the integration of PES with the command-andcontrol mechanisms. For instance, if the values of PES are higher than the opportunity
costs of cattle ranching and eucalyptus the PES system is likely to help in promoting
law enforcement.
If the value of PES is inferior to the opportunity cost of the productive systems, it might
still be helpful due to the co-benefits of the PES system described above and a
underlying possible desire of farmers to comply with the law. However, if the
opportunity cost is perceived by the farmers as being higher than all these benefits taken
together then the PES system is unlikely to work.
150
Figure 6.1 Geographic interpretation of forest laws, ownership of the water company and forest
cover.
151
6.6 Potential providers of ecosystem services
Five main categories of land users were identified in Chapter 2: the water company,
cattle ranchers, eucalyptus farmers, private residents, and owners of hotels. The
opportunity costs, incentives of PES, secondary benefits of PES systems, and desire to
comply with law can vary among the different land owners or providers of ecosystem
services. Recognizing the weight of these variables in the acceptability of PES by land
users is useful for planning the implementation of the PES system.
The importance of the PES system for the water company, as a landowner, can go
beyond the interest in receiving the payments, mostly due to the direct environmental
benefits experienced in relation to the improvement and maintenance of adequate
environmental conditions for the production and storage of water. Furthermore, its
desire to comply with law is expected to be high, considering that this company is
controlled by the government! The water company does not obtain profit from
productive systems such as eucalyptus and cattle ranching, therefore the opportunity
cost in its lands can be ignored.
Owners of hotels might also be receptive to PES systems as they also stand to benefit
directly from environmental conservation. Forest conservation, as a result of the
implementation of PES systems, can be helpful in maintaining the region attractive for
their guests. Opportunity costs of productive systems such as eucalyptus or cattle
ranching are not likely to have a substantial influence upon owners of hotels’ interest in
PES systems as these are not their main activities.
The weight of the variables that can influence the interest in PES might be similar
between cattle ranchers and producers of eucalyptus. The environmental benefits per se
are not likely to be important for these stakeholders. However, they might have some
desire to comply the law. But they will very likely require a substantial complement of
PES for overcoming the opportunity costs of their productive systems.
Private residents might attribute high importance to the secondary benefits of PES
because of the possible improvement in their welfare and living conditions. Opportunity
costs, desire to comply with the law, and the payments are probably of low importance
because their ownership is disassociated to profitability.
152
6.7 Potential buyers of ecosystem services
Efforts to identify and diversify potential sources of funds are crucial for the
maintenance of PES systems (World-Bank, 2006). In this chapter the various sources of
funds are called “buyers of ecosystem services”. A classification of buyers of ecosystem
services presented by Scherr et al. (2006) was adapted to this study in order to suggest
who might be interested in financing the proposed PES system, i.e. where the
willingness to pay for the provision of ecosystem services might lie. Four categories of
buyers are being considered: philanthropic buyers, private buyers, international
community, and public sector buyers.
6.7.1 Philanthropic buyers
Philanthropic buyers are people motivated mostly by non-use values who want to
contribute for the provision of ecosystem services. Some of them are concerned about
finding ways to compensate their own emissions of CO2 in the atmosphere. In the
region of the Atibainha reservoir, for instance, a local non-governmental organization,
IPÊ – Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas, has been intensively searched by people who
can be classified as philanthropic buyers because they want to contribute for the
development of projects of restoration and conservation of Atlantic Forest (Claudio V.
Padua, personal communication). Thus, a PES system can take advantage from these
buyers by offering an opportunity to demonstrate, in a systematic way, how the funds
can be effectively addressed to activities that result in the provision of ecosystem
services.
6.7.2 Private buyers
In a similar manner to the philanthropic buyers, there are some companies, called
private buyers, interested in funding the provision of ecosystem services. Some of them
are concerned about being neutral in their carbon emissions (Natura, 2007). Others
might be interested in developing some kind of trading of ecosystem services such as
carbon through official systems such as the Clean Development Mechanism (IPCC,
2001), or through voluntary initiatives.
Some private buyers might also be interested in compensating some damages caused to
the environment. In Brazil, the agreements of “environmental compensation” are known
as TAC (“termo de ajuste de conduta”). They are normally determined by local
153
authorities such as the public prosecutor. The limited access of prosecutors to technical
information about environment and conservation often restricts the definition of proper
TACs (Ana Luiza T. Barros, personal communication). This restriction might be
minimized through structured PES systems that incorporate TACs as one possible way
for private buyers to pay for ecosystem services. Furthermore, the PES can facilitate the
definition of forms of environmental compensation by indicating the benefits of PES
quantitatively.
6.7.3 International Community
The international community might be interested in financing activities in developing
countries that benefit global community but which would not be undertaken in these
countries without such support (Pearce, 2004). This is the case of the Global
Environmental Facility (GEF), the World Bank, and some international nongovernmental organizations. The PES in Costa Rica, for instance, has received funds
both from GEF and the World Bank (Sanchez-Azofeifa et al., 2007; Pagiola, 2002).
6.7.4 Public sector buyer
Public sector buyer refers to funds that may come from the government budget or from
taxes charged from the consumers of ecosystem services. The Brazilian policy of water
resources management, using local mechanisms of charging for water use in the
watershed where the Atibainha reservoir is located, is an example of public sector
buyer. According to the detailed description of the functioning of this policy in Chapter
2, one of the purposes of the charging system of water is to allocate funds for the
maintenance of public ecosystem services.
154
6.8 Institutional set-up
Two institutional arrangements would be necessary for implementing the proposed PES
system. The first is related to certification of ecosystem services and the second refers to
the operation of the system.
Certification of ecosystem services would be necessary to legitimate the procedures
adopted for enabling their provision, measurement and verification. Details about these
processes are presented in the next section.
The operational arrangements are necessary for creating an institution that will
constitute the interface between the buyers and the providers of ecosystem services.
Further legal studies, beyond the scope of this thesis, would be necessary to determine
which type of institution would most fit in legal terms with the needs of the PES system.
This study considers as an example the possibility that such institution might be a
cooperative for the purposes of demonstrating the operations of the proposed PES
system. The reason for taking a cooperative as an example is the fact that cooperatives
can sell services to third parties, whereas associates of the cooperative are compensated
proportionally to the services they provide (Pastore, 2001).
Three main types of professionals should compose the staff of this cooperative. The
first, called “manager of PES scheme”, should have technical skills for assisting
landowners in the preparation of projects and plans that fit with the principles and
criteria of certification. The second is the one who will prepare agreement contracts for
the buyers and providers of ecosystem services. The third type is the fund manager, who
should have skills in economics and management for managing a fund to be created for
the PES.
155
6.9 Certification of ecosystem services
Socio-environmental certification is an economic tool which originated in the 1980s and
1990s from the public concerns about deforestation in the tropics and the environmental
impacts of agriculture (Putz & Viana, 1996; Rametsteiner & Simula, 2003). It
distinguishes products and processes that incorporate environmental, social, and
economic interests.
Certification standards consist of a set of rules that need to be observed for a product to
be certified (Pinto & Prada, 2000). The standards consist of: i) principles, associated
with the goals and objectives of the system which is being analyzed; ii) criteria, that
describe a desired state or dynamics of the system; and iii) indicators, that enable
objective verification of meeting the criteria (Poschen, 2000).
Examples of certification in Brazil include 30 projects of forest management, 12 of
which in natural forests and the remaining 18 in planted forests, in more than 1 million
hectares, certified by Imaflora (Imaflora, 2005), which is a pioneer certifier in Brazil in
the use of standards of the Forest Stewardship Council (Forest Stewardship Council,
2002).
The effectiveness of the PES systems that have been emerging as an innovative
approach to conservation of tropical forests also depends to some extent on the
development of regulations and instruments that facilitate the involvement of various
market actors (Sell et al., 2006). A possible way to meet these conditions is the
development of a framework for certification of ecosystem services such as carbon
storage and conservation of water and soil, inspired by the procedures that have already
been developed for socio-environmental certification of products from forests and
agriculture. The main goal of such a system of certification might be to promote land
use decisions that ensure availability of ecosystem services.
Technical and scientific knowledge, legitimization, participation of various actors, and
social recognition are some of the main requisites for the development of standards of
certification (Pinto & Prada, 2000). Some key suggestions of principles, criteria and
indicators for the development of standards of certification of ecosystem services are
presented in Table 6.2. These suggestions have been formulated according to: i) the goal
of the system of certification, that is to promote land use decisions that ensure
156
availability of ecosystem services; ii) The findings from Chapters 4 and 5 in terms of
the magnitude and value of ecosystem services; and iii) the observation of ecocertification schemes already in use such as the Forest Stewardship Council (Forest
Stewardship Council, 2002). The suggested standards can be replaced or changed in the
future, but will be used in this study for the purposes of formulating recommendations
about how to create PES systems in the Atlantic Forest.
Compliance with forest laws is the first principle suggested. The two main forest laws,
i.e. the Forest Code (Brasil, 1965) and the Atlantic Forest Law (Brasil, 2006), are the
criteria related to this principle. The indicators of attendance of these criteria are the
verification of compliance to legal obligation of maintenance of forest cover in some
determined locations.
The management strategies of the forest to be conserved or restored are the second
principle. They refer both to activities planned by the landowner to avoid threats such as
fire and to the observance of how some characteristics of landscape are being
considered by the proposed project. For instance, within the rural property there might
be some areas where the proposed activities of forest conservation and restoration are
more appropriate by facilitating the connectivity of forest fragments that are isolated in
the landscape. Such analysis of landscape is sometimes important for ensuring living
conditions of wildlife.
The third principle is the maintenance of ecosystem services. Analysis of variations in
land use and consultation of the maps of spatial distribution of ecosystem services,
produced in Chapters 4 and 5, will enable to determine the possible contribution of land
uses for the provision of ecosystem services. This analysis is crucial for further
determining the values of ecosystem services, as well as their respective payments.
The fourth principle refers to monitoring of ecosystem services. The project must have a
monitoring plan that enables one to verify if the purposes of provision or maintenance
of ecosystem services are being achieved. Two ecosystem services were selected as
indicators: mitigation of climate change and prevention of sedimentation. The choice of
these indicators is due to their relevance to the study area and to the ease in applying
methods of measurement, such as estimates of carbon stocks and estimates of sediment
delivery.
157
Table 6.2 Suggested principles, criteria and indicators for the development of a system of
certification of ecosystem services.
Principle
Criteria
Indicator
Proportion of forests in river margins
Proportion of forests in reservoir margins
Compliance with
forest laws
Observance of
the Forest Code
Proportion of forests on hilly slopes
Proportion of forests on top of mountains
Officially registered legal reserves
Proportion of forests in legal reserves
Observance of
the Atlantic
Forest Law
Maintenance of forests that are at certain stages of
development according to criteria determined by the
Atlantic Forest Law
Control of
threats
Proper measures taken for preventing fire
Landscape
planning
Forest conservation and/or restoration according to
guidelines of landscape planning
Maintenance of
ecosystem services
Optimal
contribution for
maintenance of
ecosystem
services
Proportion of the maximum possible contribution for
the maintenance of ecosystem services
Monitoring of
ecosystem services
Quantification of
ecosystem
services
Management strategies
Fences to prevent entrance of cattle in the forest
Carbon storage
Sedimentation prevented
Further to the development of standards as described above, a system of certification
requires an institutional structure composed of certification and accreditation bodies
(Pinto & Prada, 2000). Certification bodies – also called certifiers – are independent
organizations skilled to assess if the standards’ requirements are being met. The
accreditation body has the task of ensuring that the certifiers are working properly
(Nussbaum, 2003).
Certification standards and accompanying institutional arrangements can be of
relevance to both providers and payers of ecosystem services in initiatives involving
forest conservation and restoration. In the next section they are incorporated in a
proposed structure for PES systems in the Atlantic Forest.
158
6.10 Suggested structure of PES
In this section a possible structure for a system of PES in the Atibainha reservoir area is
proposed, integrating the various aspects discussed in previous sections: providers of
ecosystem services, buyers, certification, policies and legislation.
The suggested scheme considers bundles of ecosystem services for trading. These
bundles are composed by the following services: mitigation of climate change,
conservation of soil and water, maintenance of soil fertility, pharmaceutical uses,
production of seeds, conservation of biodiversity, and tourism. Landowners would be
eligible for receiving payments for the provision of these ecosystem services by
developing two possible activities: conservation or restoration of native forests.
The values of the payments would be defined through consulting both the total
economic value map of ecosystem services and the tables of values of ecosystem
services per catchment, presented in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.8 and Appendix 5.2).
Therefore, the value of payments for the same bundle of ecosystem services per unit of
area would vary according to the spatial location by considering the influence of local
environmental variables in the availability of ecosystem services. This differentiation
procedure would overcome the failures noted by Pagiola et al. (2005) and by SanchezAzofeifa et al. (2007) in the Costa Rican PES system, i.e. negligence to variations
among different areas in the provision of ecosystem services, as discussed previously.
Considering that the availability of funds for PES is normally restricted, it might not be
possible to establish values of payments equivalent to the total economic value of the
ecosystem services being traded. However, capturing the total value of the ecosystem
services is actually not required for the PES system to work. What is needed is solely
that the payments exceed the opportunity costs of alternative land uses.
Flowcharts are helpful for illustrating the interconnection of the various agents and
stages of PES as well as for demonstrating the logical framework of the functioning of a
system of PES. Indeed, flowcharts have been used to describe previous PES schemes,
including the PES system in Costa Rica (Furtado et al., 1999; Pagiola, 2004), the
“Produtor de Água” programme in Brazil (2004a), and an illustrative scheme proposed
by Ditt et al. (2007) that integrates providers of ecosystem services (i.e. farmers) with
potential sources of PES. These studies have provided the basis for the flowchart
159
presented in Figure 6.2. This flowchart represents a proposal for a possible PES scheme
in the land around the Atibainha reservoir.
The scheme would work as follows. A potential provider of ecosystem services, i.e.
landowner, would contact the manager of PES. An initial analysis of suitability would
be made by the PES Manager for further determining which type of proposal, i.e. forest
restoration or conservation, can be prepared. The manager of PES would provide the
landowner with guidelines and assistance in preparing the proposal for a conservation
plan or a forest restoration project. The proposal would then be submitted for a
preliminary review by an external certifier. After the approval of the proposal in this
first stage of certification, the map of values of ecosystem services produced in chapter
5 would be consulted for determining the values of the ecosystem services in the
proposal. Then the proposal would be delivered to the cooperative of ecosystem service
farmers.
The participation of a provider of ecosystem service could be planned simultaneously
with the participation of the buyer if the trade occurs through a bilateral agreement. Or,
it could be planned independently, if the buyer contributes to a fund which will further
address the payments to the providers of ecosystem services.
The buyer would join in the PES system in a similar way to the provider. Initial contacts
would be made between the PES manager and the potential buyer for an initial analysis
of feasibility of his participation. If the feasibility is confirmed a proposal of purchase of
ecosystem services would be prepared according to the buyers’ profile. It is important
for the sustainability of the system that it is flexible enough to accommodate the
interests of different potential buyers of ecosystem services, discussed in section 7 of
this chapter. Such interests can be associated, for example, with mitigation or
neutralization of carbon emissions, compliance to agreements of environmental
compensation, voluntary support to conservation, applying financial resources raised
from taxes and policies for provision of ecosystem services, etc.
Potential buyers of ecosystem services include individuals, private companies, nongovernmental organizations, government agencies, international organizations, and
virtual groups (collaborators through the internet). The proposal to purchase ecosystem
services would also have to be delivered to the cooperative of ecosystem service
farmers.
160
After any proposal, either the provider’s or the buyer’s, is delivered to the cooperative
of ecosystem service farmers, an agreement could be formalized through a contract.
Contracts with buyers might be formalized at any time, whereas contracts with
providers would be formalized as soon as the funds become available. The restoration or
conservation project should start right after the agreement is signed.
Some time after the start the project or plan would be submitted to a second assessment
by the certifier so that initial results can be monitored. The approval of the certifier in
this second stage is a pre-condition for certificates of provision of ecosystem services to
be issued. The certificates would legitimatize the effectiveness of the PES system.
161
6.11 Challenges for implementation of PES
One of the main difficulties faced by PES systems is the need to ensure the existence of
sustainable and continuous sources of funds. Several types of potential buyers need to
be identified, and the PES systems must be planned to facilitate their participation.
Credibility and transparency in the procedures that demonstrate the effectiveness of the
provision of ecosystem services have also to be carefully considered. The lack of
standards in the voluntary market for carbon, for instance, is cited by Capoor &
Ambrosi (2007) as a risk to the reputation of the entire market.
Attention to all these requirements can be facilitated by the procedures for certification
and the logical framework of PES system described in this study. It has reasonable
flexibility for enabling the participation of various possible buyers of ecosystem
services, according to arrangements made by the PES manager. The logical sequence of
procedures presented in the flowchart (Figure 6.2) and the maps of ecosystem services
and their values developed in earlier chapters constitute useful tools for the
implementation of PES systems. These maps are also useful for the certification
procedures that add transparency and credibility to the scheme. Certificates for
provision of ecosystem services, issued by certification bodies with recognized
credibility, can add value to the investments in these initiatives.
The recent development of policy for water resources in Brazil is likely to result in the
emergence of a source of substantial resources for PES. The proposed PES scheme in
Figure 2 is helpful for promoting an effective use of some of these resources.
The proposed system of PES is also flexible in relation to the participation of private
and public sector. For instance, it can be incorporated in some policy of broad coverage
as well as used in a private bilateral initiative involving only one buyer and one provider
of ecosystem services. The development of both public and private PES systems, with
similarities in their logical framework, is convenient for scaling up the human actions
towards the provision and maintenance of ecosystem services. In both public and
private initiatives the operational costs, such as the maintenance of a cooperative of
ecosystem services and the PES manager, must be considered. More studies are
necessary for detailing these costs and for revealing how to maximize the available
resources for direct expenses with the provision of ecosystem services.
162
The accounting of costs and benefits related to the provision of ecosystem services and
the incorporation of these costs in the PES systems, as undertaken in this study, is an
essential pre-requisite of PES.
163
Potential buyer (financer)
of ecosystem services is
detected
Landowner interested in
managing his area for
receiving PES
Manager of PES scheme analyzes
suitability of the area
Report of the
detected limitations
is sent to landowner
NO
Manager of PES
scheme analyzes
feasibility of
participation of the
potential buyer
Report of the
detected
limitations is
sent to
potential buyer
Area suitable for
PES scheme?
YES
Project
proposal of
forest
restoration is
prepared
Feasibility of
potential buyer
confirmed?
NO
RESTORATION
Which type of
management
is required?
YES
CONSERVATION
Proposal of PES is
prepared by the manager
of PES and the potential
buyer
Proposal of conservation plan for the area is prepared
Submission of proposals to a certifier
Analysis of proposals
by the certifier
PROPOSAL
REFUSED
Submission of proposal to
cooperative of ecosystem
services farmers for PES
PROPOSAL
APPROVED
Use map of ecosystem services and their
values for defining values of PES
Submission of proposal to cooperative of
ecosystem services farmers for receiving PES
Revision of procedures
IMPLEMENTATION
REFUSED
Formal agreements with buyer
and provider of ecosystem
services are prepared through
the cooperative
Implementation of project or plan
Analysis of project or
plan by a certifier
IMPLEMENTATION
APPROVED
Certificate of ecosystem services is issued
EFFECTIVE PES
Figure 6.2. Flowchart of the suggested system of payments for ecosystem services
164
6.12 Conclusions
This chapter has presented a set of recommendations of how to implement a PES system
in the region of the Atibainha reservoir, using information obtained in the previous
chapters. By considering the economic value maps, which indicate the magnitude of the
provision of ecosystem services and their respective economic value at any point of the
landscape, the proposed system allows us to optimize the use of PES funds because the
funds can be targeted according to the spatial variations in the provision of ecosystem
services. Therefore, sites more valuable in terms of the provision of ecosystem services
can be identified and efforts of conservation and restoration can be targeted to these
sites and properly compensated. This is one important factor which distinguishes the
proposed system from other PES systems such as the Costa Rican (Sanchez-Azofeifa et
al., 2007; Wunder, 2007).
Moreover, the structure of PES constructed in this study could fit the interests of both
policies and private initiatives of PES. Policies can be highly benefited from these
market systems because of the potential improvement in enforcement of forest laws. If
these systems are implemented they could be the first policy mechanism providing an
ability to compete with the opportunity costs of productive systems in the region of
Atibainha reservoir.
The policies focused on water resources can also benefit from this study because the
proposed structure of PES indicates how the resources of charging for the use of water
could be best allocated in favour to the provision of ecosystem services.
Private initiatives of PES can also benefit from this study by adopting the suggested
procedures for planning and implementing projects of conservation and restoration of
native forests, following proper guidelines of quantification and demonstration of the
obtained benefits, certification, and negotiation between buyers and providers of
ecosystem services.
Finally, this study has produced a systematic scheme which could be helpful for
legitimatizing the PES as an innovative and possibly effective way to finance
conservation.
Further research is needed beyond the proposed scheme for PES establishment and
verification, to understand the issues in depth in the aforementioned remaining research
165
issues. This will require a broader geographical coverage within the Atlantic Forest
biome.
166
6.13 References
Amazonas, 2007. Lei Estadual 3135 de 04 de junho de 2007. Assembléia Legislativa,
Manaus.
Brasil, 1965. Codigo Florestal Brasileiro: lei 4771 de 15 de setembro de 1965. Câmara
dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 1997. Lei 9433 de 08 de janeiro de 1997. Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 2006. Lei da Mata Atlântica: lei Federal 11428 de 22 de dezembro de 2006.
Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Capoor K., Ambrosi P., 2007. State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2007. The World
Bank, Washington.
Chaves H.M.L., Braga B., Domingues A. F., Santos D., 2004a. Quantificação dos
beneficios ambientais e compensações financeiras do Programa do Produtor de Água
(ANA): Teoria. Revista Brasileira de Recursos Hídricos, 9(3): 5-14.
Chaves H.M.L., Braga, B., Santos, D., Domingues, A. F., 2004b. Quantificação dos
beneficios ambientais e compensações financeiras do Programa do Produtor de Água
(ANA): Aplicação. Revista Brasileira de Recursos Hidricos, 9(3): 15-21.
Ditt E.H., Mourato S., Knight J., 2007. Translating ecosystem services science into
guidelines for Brazilian decision makers. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference of Environmental Accounting and Sustainable Development Indicators,
Prague.
Extrema, 2005. Lei Municipal 2100, de 21 de dezembro de 2005. Câmara Municipal,
Extrema.
Extrema, 2006a. Decreto Municipal 1801 de 01 de setembro de 2006. Prefeitura
Municipal, Extrema.
Extrema, 2006b. Decreto Municipal 1703 de 06 de abril de 2006. Prefeitura Municipal,
Extrema.
167
Forest Stewardship Council, 2002. FSC Principles and Criteria for Forest Stewardship.
FSC- Forest Stewardship Council, Bonn.
Furtado J.I., Kishor N., Rao G.V., Wood C., 1999. Global Climate Change and
Bidiversity: Challenges for the Future and the Way Ahead/ WBI Working Papers.
World Bank Institute, Washington.
Grieg-Gran M., I. Porras, and S. Wunder, 2005. How can market mechanisms for forest
environmental services help the poor? Preliminary lessons from Latin America. World
Development, 33:1511-1527.
Hirata M.F., 2006. Proambiente: um programa inovador de desenvolvimento rural.
Agriculturas, 3(1): 15-17.
Imaflora, 2005. Dez anos contribuindo para o desenvolvimento sustentável. Imaflora,
Piracicaba.
IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: the scientific basis. Houghton J.T., Ding Y., Griggs
D.J., Noguer M., Van der Linden P.J., Dai X., Askell K., Johnson C.A. (Ed.).
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Kosoy N., M. Martinez-Tuna, R. Muradian, and J. Martinez-Alier, 2007. Payments for
environmental services in watersheds: Insights from a comparative study of three cases
in Central America. Ecological Economics, 61:446-455.
Landell-Mills N., Porras I., 2002. Silver bullet or fools gold? A global review of
markets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor. International
Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London.
Mattos L., Faleiro A., Pereira C., 2001. Uma proposta alternativa para o
desenvolvimento da produção familiar rural da Amazonia: o caso do Proambiente. IV
Encontro Nacional da Sociedade Brasileira de Economia Ecológica (ECOECO), Belém.
Miranda M., C. Dieperink, and P. Glasbergen, 2006. Costa Rican environmental service
payments: The use of a financial instrument in participatory forest management.
Environmental Management, 38:562-571.
168
Natura, 2007. A Natura e o Carbono Neutro: Pensamento no futuro – todo o futuro.
Natura, Cajamar.
Nussbaum R., 2003. A practical guide to developing a group scheme for FSC –
accredited certification of forests. Proforest, Oxford.
Pagiola S., Arcenas A., Platais G., 2005. Can Payments for Environmental Services
Help Reduce Poverty? An Exploration of the Issues and the Evidence to Data from
Latin America. World Development, 33 (2): 237-253.
Pagiola S., P. Agostini, J. Gobbi, C. de Haan, M. Ibrahim, E. Murgueitio, E. Ramirez,
M. Rosales, and J. P. Ruiz, 2005. Paying for Biodiversity conservation services Experience in Colombia, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. Mountain Research and
Development, 25:206-211.
Pagiola S., 2004. Paying for Water Services in Central America: Learning from Costa
Rica. In: Pagiola, S.; Bishop, J.; Landell-Mills, N. Selling Forest Environmentla
Services: Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development. Earthscan,
London.
Pastore J., 2001. Cartilha sobre cooperativas de trabalho. Confederação Nacional da
Indústria, Brasília.
Pearce D. W., 2004. Environmental market creation: saviour or oversell? Portuguese
Economic Journal, 3:115-144.
Pinto L. F. G., Prada L., 2000. Fundamentos da certificação socioambiental. In: Marcelo
Paixão; José Maria Ferraz; Laura Prada. (Org.). Certificação socioambiental do setor
sucroalcooleiro. Imaflora/FASE/Embrapa, São Paulo.
Pearce D., Moran D., 1994. The economic Value of Biodiversity. Earthscan
Publications Ltd, London.
Poschen P., 2000. Forest Certification Working Paper No. 3: Social Criteria and
Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management. GTZ-Programme Office for Social and
Ecological Standards, Eschborn.
169
Putz F.E., Viana V., 1996. Biological challenges for certification of Tropical Timber.
Biotropica, 28(3): 323-330.
Rametsteiner E., Simula M., 2003. Forest certification: an instrument to promote forest
management? Journal of Environmental Management, 67: 87-98.
Rosa H., S. Kandel, and L. Dimas, 2004. Compensation for environmental services and
rural communities: lessons from the Americas. International Forestry Review, 6:187194.
Sanchez-Azofeifa G.A., Pfaff A., Robalino J.A., Boomhower J.P., 2007. Costa Rica's
Payment for Environmental Services Program: Intention, Implementation, and Impact.
Conservation Biology, 21(5):1165-73.
Scherr S.J., Bennett M.T., Loughney M., Canby K., 2006. Developing future ecosystem
service payments in China: lessons learned from international experience. Forest
Trends, Washington.
Sell J., Koellner T., Weber O., Pedroni L., Scholz R.W., 2006. Decision criteria of
European and Latin American market actors for tropical forestry projects providing
environmental services. Ecological Economics, 58:17-36.
Taiyab N., 2006. Exploring the market for voluntary carbon offsets. International
Institute for Environment and Development, London.
Tiepolo G., Calmon M., Ferreti A., 2002. Measuring and Monitoring Carbon Stocks at
the Guaraqueçaba Climate Action Project, Parana, Brasil. International Symposium on
Forest Carbon Sequestration and Monitoring. Extension Serie No. 153 (p 98-115)
Taiwan Forestry Research Institute.
Tognetti S. S., B. Aylward, and G. F. Mendoza, 2005. Markets for Watershed Services.
In: Anderson M.G. (Ed) Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences. Wiley, USA.
World-Bank, 2006. Costa Rica Mainstreaming Market Based Instruments for
Environmental Management Project. World Bank, Washington.
Wunder S., 2006. Are direct payments for environmental services spelling doom for
sustainable forest management in the tropics? Ecology and Society, 11(2):23.
170
Wunder S. V. E. N., 2007. The Efficiency of Payments for Environmental Services in
Tropical Conservation. Conservation Biology, 21:48-58.
Yu C.M., 2004. Sequestro florestal do carbono no Brasil: dimensões políticas
socioeconômicas e ecológicas. In: Sanqueta, C. et al. (Eds.) Fixação de carbono:
Atualidades, projetos e pesquisas. UFPR/ Instituto Ecoplan, Curitiba.
Zbinden S. and D. R. Lee, 2005. Paying for Environmental Services: An Analysis of
Participation in Costa Rica's PSA Program. World Development, 33:255-272.
171
CHAPTER 7
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
7.1 Purpose of the thesis
This thesis has contributed to improving the knowledge about how land use decisions
around the Atibainha reservoir can affect human welfare through the improvement, or
damage, to ecosystem services. Furthermore, it has suggested a range of land use
strategies that favour the provision of ecosystem services. These broad objectives of the
thesis were accomplished through the development of multidisciplinary studies aimed at
achieving the five specific objectives, as described below.
The first objective was to evaluate the role that legislation made to the provision of
ecosystem services. To achieve this, a descriptive analysis of laws that regulate land use
and conservation of natural resources was carried out, followed by a quantitative
analysis of the impacts of the failure of law enforcement using a geographic information
system. The land use patterns that have developed as a result of failures in law
enforcement were translated into losses of ecosystem services by considering the
physical assessments of these services within the different land use categories.
Assessing the provision of ecosystem services in various land uses was the second
objective. Physical assessments were made of four ecosystem services: carbon storage
in biomass of trees, prevention of sedimentation in water bodies, maintenance of soil
fertility, and maintenance of chemical quality of water.
Determining the economic values of the main land uses was the third objective and
achieving this objective was a prerequisite for understanding the financial forces that
determine land use ultimately leading to a decline or increase in the provision of
ecosystem services. The economic values of both ecosystem services and the profits that
individuals obtain from the different production systems associated with the land uses
allows a direct comparison of the costs and benefits of any particular land use. Profits
were estimated through analysis of data collected in interviews with farmers and the
172
total economic value of ecosystem services was determined by applying a set of
methods of economic valuation.
The fourth specific objective was to characterize land users in terms of the use and
provision of ecosystem services. Five categories of land users with different interests
were identified: the water company, cattle ranchers, eucalyptus farmers, hotel owners,
and residents. Their roles as providers or beneficiaries of ecosystem services were
assessed based upon the values of individual and social benefits and the implications of
this discussed with respect to land use.
The final objective was to propose land use guidelines and mechanisms which would
safeguard the provision of ecosystem services. In order to achieve this objective a
scheme for a mechanism of payment for ecosystem service was formulated, using the
results of the various components of this thesis. This scheme is not only applicable to
this specific case but also more widely applicable to other areas facing similar
development pressures.
173
7.2 Summary of findings
7.2.1 Analysis of landscape referenced by watersheds
The analysis and interpretation of contour maps, using a geographic information system,
enabled the delineation of 188 catchments around the Atibainha reservoir that composed
the study area. The partitioning of the study area in small catchments, besides being
used in this study, is also now available for further studies of this area that may require
information about the watershed.
7.2.2 Law enforcement and policy opportunities
It was demonstrated that efforts to date for the development of proper land use policies
in the region of the Atibainha reservoir still have not resulted in effective conservation
of forest and water resources. The Forest Code, for instance, which is the main federal
law for the conservation of forests, has been poorly observed. Therefore, some policy
opportunities must be explored in order to facilitate both the conservation of forest and
water resources, and the adherence to the forest code.
One of these opportunities is associated with the recent development of a policy for
water resources, which is creating a legal framework for the creation of PES schemes
based on resources obtained from charging for the consumption of water (Brasil, 1997).
Part of these resources might be used to encourage conservation. The development of a
number of PES schemes simultaneously in other regions of the country such as in
Amazonia (Mattos, 2001; Amazonas, 2007), has been contributing both to the
dissemination of this innovative strategy among decision makers and to improve
knowledge of its application.
7.2.3 Physical estimates of ecosystem services having indirect use values
According to the results of this study the provision of ecosystem services declines in the
following order of land use: native forests, eucalyptus plantations, pastures, and bare
soil or urban areas.
Looking at the individual services it was discovered that
approximately 329 thousand tons of carbon are stored in above ground biomass of trees
as a result of the current land uses in the study area. Of this, 95% is in the native forests
and the remaining 5% is in plantations of eucalyptus and it is therefore reasonable to
expect that removal of these forests would cause a release of approximately 1.2 million
tons of CO2 in the atmosphere.
174
Sedimentation of the Atibainha reservoir can also be substantially affected by land use
changes. If the surrounding lands of the reservoir were entirely occupied by pasture,
more than 1,400 tons of sediment could be delivered in the reservoir every year.
However, if the lands were entirely occupied by native forests or eucalyptus the
sedimentation could be reduced to 67 tons or 9 tons of soil per year, respectively.
Influences of land use on soil fertility were detected when native forests were compared
with other uses such as eucalyptus and pastures, in terms of the content of organic
matter. Forest conversion could result in a decline of 25% of the average content of
organic matter from 56 to 42 grams per cubic decimetre of soil. Such a decline could
affect the availability of nitrogen for plants and, consequently, the development of the
forests and the provision of various ecosystem services.
7.2.4 Mapping economic values of ecosystem services
Human interventions in the landscape of the study area in the past five centuries have
resulted in the conversion of the homogeneous native forest into a mosaic of various
land uses. If the original native forest had been maintained the total economic value
(TEV) of land use would be U$49.4 million/year. However, as a consequence of
changes that occurred to the landscape, the estimated total economic value of current
land use in the study area is only 60% of this value, i.e. U$30.7 million/year.
Ecosystem services account for U$26 million/year, i.e. 85% of the TEV of current land
uses. These services include carbon storage (U$24.1 million/year), prevention of
sedimentation in the lake (U$177 thousand/year), maintenance of soil fertility (U$6
thousand/year), provision of tourism (U$1.2 million/year), biodiversity conservation
(U$234 thousand/year), option values of pharmaceutical uses (U$581/year), and option
value of production of seeds (U$205/year).
The remaining 15% of the current TEV of current land uses are associated with profits
obtained from productive systems, including grazing of pasture (U$3.9 million/year)
and production of eucalyptus (U$735 thousand/year).
Despite the fact that land users and policy makers normally only recognize the values
related to productive systems, the values of ecosystem services uncovered in this study
are substantially higher than the values of productive systems. Therefore, the revelation
of these values can be used in promoting the recognition of land use values beyond
pasturage and production of eucalyptus. The spatial representation of the values in the
175
economic value maps can be used to specifically target areas of high ecosystem service
value, for conservation, or suffering degradation, for remedial action.
7.2.5 Proposal of PES mechanism
One of the main outcomes of this study is the set of recommendations for the
development of a PES system in the study area. Through this system, landowners could
receive payments if they conserve or restore native forests in their properties. The
values of the payments would vary according to the location of the forest to be
conserved or restored, because of the spatial variation in the availability of ecosystems
that may occur. The economic value maps of ecosystem services could be consulted for
identifying such variations in values. The activities related to forest conservation or
restoration should be submitted to a process of certification. The payments could
originate from philanthropic buyers of ecosystem services, private sector, public sector,
and the international community. In order to organize the interface between the buyers
and the providers of ecosystem services, some institutional arrangements are proposed,
including the creation of a cooperative of producers of ecosystem services.
176
7.3 Strengths, limitations and future research
Identifying strengths and limitations of the studies of this thesis is helpful for designing
complementary studies, as well as for proposing actions and policies. Some of the main
limitations and strengths are listed in table 7.1.
One of the main limitations, which requires further investigation, is the lack of a
database which enables land users to be identified individually – such lack of
information is also a problem faced by official agencies that control documentation of
land properties. To produce this database it would be necessary to visit each rural
property to collect data on the extent and locations, using GPS equipment. This activity
was not developed due to limitation of time. Therefore, this study has focused on
categories of land users, rather than on individuals.
Estimates of profits obtained by land users are considered to be the second limitation.
Only profits from production of eucalyptus and from cattle ranching have been
considered. Despite these being the main economic activities, investigation of other
productive systems can be helpful for interpreting the opportunity costs of land use.
The third limitation is the use of data obtained in the literature about some ecosystem
services that have been transferred to this study. Developing specific studies in the
region for valuing some ecosystem services, specifically those of option values and non
use values, would be useful for improving the estimates of TEV.
Research of procedures of certification applied to ecosystem services constitutes the
fourth limitation. This thesis presents only some general guidelines for developing such
procedures. Their improvement requires further specific research.
Seven main strengths and opportunities can be identified in the thesis:
The first is the production of a consistent GIS database containing information of
several environmental variables.
The second is the proposal of a criteria based on watershed concepts for studying the
landscape. Despite the simplicity of these procedures for partitioning the landscape,
they have been adopted for the first time in this study for assessing total economic value
of ecosystem services.
177
The third strength refers to the geographic interpretation of laws, which has been
important both for the continuation of the research and for purposes of policy.
Estimates of carbon constitute the fourth strength. Such estimates were based on an
extensive collection of data of vegetation, and the obtained results have various possible
applications, including the indication of the potential of the local forests to contribute to
mitigate climate change.
Estimates of total economic value of land uses are the fifth strength of this work, due to
the novelty and also the importance of the obtained information. These estimates enable
an analysis of the consequences of land use changes on human welfare.
The economic value maps are the sixth strength. These maps translate into a
cartographic language the results of various investigations of influence of land uses on
human welfare. Through revealing at any point of the landscape the economic values
corresponding to the impacts of land use changes, they can be used for various purposes
of research and policy.
Finally, the seventh strength of this thesis is the set of recommendations to support the
development of PES schemes in the study area, which is one of the main purposes of
this research.
Table 7.1 Strengths and limitations of the current research
Limitations/ Future research
Strengths/ opportunities
GIS database
Individual identification of landusers
Estimates of profits from productive systems
Transfering benefits from literature
Certification of ecosystem services
Landscape partitioning
Geographic interpretation of laws
Estimates of carbon stocks
TEV of land uses
Economic value maps
Recommendations for PES scheme
178
7.4 Applicability beyond the study area
There is an increasing awareness of the necessity of scientific basis for policies to
prevent decline in ecosystem services in regions where ecosystems have been severely
modified by humans (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2000). Although this study
was concerned with land use and the provision of ecosystem services in a specific
region in south-eastern Brazil the applicability of the findings goes beyond the area
selected. The methodology that has been developed and the resulting recommendations
should have a wider applicability to research and policy initiatives elsewhere in the
world.
In order to better understand the contribution of this research beyond the area around the
Atibainha reservoir it is useful to consider five aspects of the research: the ecosystem
services analysis framework, analysis of land use policies, ecosystem services
assessments, valuation of ecosystem services, and PES mechanisms.
7.4.1 Ecosystem services analysis framework
The integration of various aspects of research and policy related to provision of
ecosystem services was possible in this study due to the formulation of an interacting
framework composed of eight steps, which indicate how the findings can be applied in
further research that aims to address the problem of ecosystem services loss in other
regions.
The first step is to make a general analysis for characterizing potential threats to the
provision of ecosystem services. Depending on the study area these threats can be
associated with various factors such as policies, history of degradation, fragility of
habitats, and among others, conflicts of land use.
In step 2 it is necessary to carry out a survey of local environmental variables and maps
for producing a GIS database that will be used in various analyses in the following
steps. For instance, the control of information about land use, slope, soils and rivers, is
necessary to identify gaps of local information, as well as to plan some surveys for
obtaining complementary data.
The study area can be delineated in step 3 using information that was compiled through
the GIS database. The procedures adopted in this thesis, of digitizing contour lines for
179
identification of catchments can be a convenient way to delineate the area to be focused
on by other studies.
Step 4 consists of a geographic interpretation of legislation and policies related to land
use. Mapping areas that are protected by legislation as well as areas that are vulnerable
to degradation due to the absence of proper policies will be helpful in the further
recommendations of policies. The information about failures in land use policies
revealed in this thesis can also be useful in other regions within the Atlantic Forest
biome, where land uses are regulated by the same set of laws.
The fifth step consists of physical estimates of ecosystem services. In the current
research three main procedures for assessing ecosystem services have been developed
or improved and may be applied in several other studies in tropical forests. The first
refers to estimates of carbon stocks, using methods of survey of vegetation integrated
with GIS. The second is the estimation of sedimentation in the various catchments of
the area. The third is the assessment of soil fertility in different land use scenarios. The
choice of the ecosystem services to be assessed depends on availability of information
of local environmental variables, methods for carrying the assessments, and importance
of the ecosystem services in the study area.
In step 6 the economic values of the main land uses of the study area have to be
determined, including those associated to the provision of ecosystem services and other
possible values such as the profits obtained from agriculture. Each land use may require
a specific method of assessment, which has to be defined during the research. By
integrating estimates of economic values with land use maps in GIS a set of economic
value maps of land uses has to be produced.
An investigation of the main land users in the study area must be developed in step 7 for
revealing the interests upon which land use decisions are made. The land users have to
be classified according to their interest of land uses and ideally the areas that they
control have to be mapped in GIS.
In step 8 all the information obtained during the research has to be analysed in order to
develop land use guidelines and to produce recommendations of land use policies. If
policies based on PES are being considered it is possible to take advantage of the PES
system which is being proposed in this thesis.
180
7.4.2 Analysis of land use policies
The characterization of land use policies and their implications for conservation of
water and forest resources, made in this study, provides two major contributions for
further work. The first is the procedure developed for a quantitative analysis of
effectiveness of policies through the combination of geographic interpretation of
legislation with a catchment based partitioning of the landscape. Such criteria for
partitioning the landscape is due to the fact that the watershed is recognized as the best
planning unit for land resource development because it allows considering patterns of
size, shape, topography, drainage, soil, and land use (Adinarayana et al., 1995; Santos,
2006).
Similar analyses are feasible in other areas through using local topographic maps for
delineating the watersheds and surveying local land use policies. The geographic
interpretation of legislation in the area of this study was based on the rules of the Forest
Code (Brasil, 1965) and the Atlantic Forest Law (Brasil, 2006) because these laws were
recognized as the main components of the local land use policies. However, in other
regions it may be necessary to consider other criteria such as the limits of protected
areas.
The second major contribution refers to the lessons learned from the failures and
opportunities associated to land use policies that were identified. Despite the existence
of some policies composed by a set of laws and rules, many of them addressing the real
local environmental issues, results of this thesis reveal that they fail in achieving the
purpose of conservation, confirming the limitations of command-and-control
mechanisms (Holling & Meffe, 1996). Rather than neglecting these policies, it is worth
exploring complementary mechanisms that may contribute to their enforcement. The
development of research and policies in other regions can benefit from this thesis
through understanding the failures identified and the opportunities of complementary
mechanisms that were explored. For instance, the legal obligation to maintain native
forests around water bodies, i.e. the Permanent Preservation Areas, is crucial. However,
the proper enforcement of this rule depends on complementary efforts such as the
proposed PES mechanisms.
In a similar manner, the legislation related to policy of water resources addresses real
issues of depletion of water resources, despite some gaps of knowledge and policy were
181
identified for achieving a proper destination of resources of water charging. The
awareness of such gaps, as well as of the opportunities that may derive from these
policies, is helpful for developing further water policies.
7.4.3 Ecosystem services assessments
Despite many PES systems having been implemented around the world (Pagiola, 2004;
Sanchez-Azofeifa et al., 2007), there are several knowledge gaps related to methods for
verification and quantification of ecosystem services. The lack of such methods can be a
threat to the efficiency of some PES systems. This thesis contributes to filling this gap
through the procedures that were developed for the physical assessments of ecosystem
services, mostly those related to mitigation of climate change and sediment delivery in
water bodies.
Some equations have been developed by Brown et al. (1984) and Brown (1997) that use
data on diameters of trees to estimate the above ground biomass and stocks of carbon in
tropical forests. In this thesis the biomass equations were integrated with procedures for
mapping ecosystem services (Bateman et al., 2002) for a spatial representation of the
benefits of mitigation of climate change associated with land use at any point in the
landscape. Furthermore, the control in GIS of information about variation in forest
physiognomy enabled some limitations in the applicability of the biomass equations in
landscapes that are composed of a mosaic of forest physiognomies to be overcome. This
combination of methodologies can be adapted to other areas, according to the
availability of basic information, such as data of forest biomass and a suitable GIS
database.
The procedures developed for mapping the ecosystem service of prevention of
sedimentation are also likely to be of use in other areas, especially around water
reservoirs, where integrated management of catchments is necessary. Prior to this study
the most common criteria for determining priority areas for conservation were
exclusively associated to biodiversity (Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica et al., 1997;
Myers et al., 2000). Criteria based on the provision of ecosystem services for
prioritizing conservation of Atlantic Forest is a novel approach although in India, some
procedures were developed by Adinarayana et al. (1995) for partitioning the landscape
into small hydrologic units with the purpose of prioritization of watersheds for
conservation actions according to relative ratios of sediment yield. Such procedures
were improved in the current study through applying a model that generated real
182
estimates of sediment yield rather than relative ratios. These estimates were used for
further calculation of economic values as well as for prioritization of the catchments.
Therefore, this study demonstrated the possibility of considering some innovative
criteria for prioritizing the areas for the protection of forests, i.e. defining priority
catchments for conservation.
7.4.4 Valuing ecosystem services
The development of PES schemes in many countries is evolving from systems focused
on single ecosystem services such as mitigation of climate change or water conservation
to bundles of ecosystem services (Duraiappah, 2006; Lakany et al., 2007). These
schemes may benefit from this thesis through the set of procedures developed for
estimating the contribution of each ecosystem service to the total economic value.
Furthermore, procedures for producing economic value maps were improved, enabling a
spatial representation of the total economic value to be obtained, as well as the
individual values of ecosystem services. Such spatial representation can be a way of
supporting the development of bundle PES schemes through demonstrating where the
values of ecosystem services reside.
Another application of the techniques developed in this thesis in other studies is the
demonstration of the monetary values of ecosystem services. Published studies found in
the literature about valuation of ecosystem services, reveal a great variation in their
estimated values (Torras, 2000; Pearce, 2001). This study contributes to improving the
knowledge of these values through the application of some methods of valuation that
take advantage from the information obtained in the physical assessments of ecosystem
services.
Carbon storage in forest biomass is one of these services. An extensive study done by
Fankhauser (1995) suggested values for carbon according to estimates of global and
regional damages associated with global warming. Those values have been used as a
reference in many other studies. For instance, Adger et al. (2002) combined the
economic value suggested by Fankauser (1995) with data on forest biomass obtained
from the literature to calculate the value of tropical forests in Mexico. Despite its
importance, Fankhauser’s (1997) study was developed more than a decade ago, before
the rise of carbon markets.
183
This thesis has used more recent reference values of carbon, obtained both in recent
studies on the impacts of global warming (Stern, 2007) and in the analyses of the
current carbon markets (Capoor & Ambrosi, 2007). Furthermore, as described above, it
has used more precise data on forest biomass, which was obtained in field surveys in the
study area, rather than in a literature search.
Valuing the prevention of sedimentation was also facilitated by the physical
assessments of ecosystem services. The original purpose behind the development of
methods for estimating movement of soil through erosion and sedimentation was to
improve agriculture and land management (Bertoni & Lombardi-Neto, 1985). A number
of studies have used estimates of soil erosion for valuing ecosystem services through
calculations of the costs of nutrient loss associated with the soil eroded (Li at al., 2006;
Guo et al., 2002; Pearce, 2001; Torras, 2000). This thesis suggested that such estimates
may have further applicability in valuing ecosystem services, by calculating the impacts
of sedimentation on the capacity of water storage in the reservoir.
Estimates of nutrient loss, instead of being considered for valuing soil erosion as in
previous studies, were used in this thesis for valuing the service of maintenance of soil
fertility. Moreover, rather than using extrapolations of results obtained from running
models of erosion like most studies do, the nutrient contents in the soil were determined
through analysis in the laboratory using samples of soil that were collected in the study
area, allowing more precise estimation of physical and therefore economic value. This
new procedure for assessing the ecosystem service of maintenance of soil fertility can
be applicable in several other areas.
As discussed earlier, the values of most of the ecosystem services assessed in this
research can be influenced by physical variables such as slope, soils, and land cover.
The spatial heterogeneity in these variables is an important limitation to determining
accurate values of these services. In order to overcome this limitation, the technique of
spatial economic valuation, proposed by Eade & Moran (1996), was adopted. This
technique consists of controlling environmental variables using tools such as geographic
information systems for determining economic values of natural assets.
Despite there being several ways of applying this technique, described in detail by
Bateman et al. (2002), few examples of its use were found in the literature. One of these
studies, developed by Troy & Wilson (2006) in three different locations in USA
demonstrates that mapping ecosystem services can be feasible at various scales. A
184
similar study was developed by Li et al. (2006), using GIS for determining the total
economic value of ecosystem services in the Qinba mountains in China. The authors of
these studies emphasize in their discussions that the obtained products, i.e. the economic
value maps, can assist decision making processes for favouring the provision of
ecosystem services. The current thesis goes beyond these studies by exploring how such
assistance to decision making processes can occur, i.e. how mechanisms such as PES
schemes can benefit from the economic value maps of ecosystem services.
7.4.5 PES mechanisms
The results obtained in the studies of policies and assessments of ecosystem services
and their values, described in the previous sections, were used to develop a proposal of
PES system which contains improvements in the current knowledge of PES. Previous
experiences of PES such as the system in Costa Rica, do not consider the spatial
variations in the availability of ecosystem services. By ignoring this variation, the
payments are made on a per hectare basis and the values of payments per hectare do not
vary. Therefore, some payments might be directed towards areas that are not necessarily
of great importance for the provision of ecosystem services (Sanchez-Azofeifa et al.,
2007; Pagiola, 2005; Rosa et al., 2004).
This problem was overcome in this study through the use of economic value maps of
ecosystem services, which indicate spatial variations in the provision of ecosystem
services according to the influence of different environmental variables.
Another important aspect in the proposed PES mechanism is the suggestion of
guidelines for the development of procedures for the certification of ecosystem services.
As discussed in Chapter 6, procedures for certification of some agricultural products
and forest management are highly developed (Pinto & Prada, 2000). The guidelines
suggested in this thesis are helpful in any future development of a system of
certification of ecosystem services. Such systems can be useful not only in the PES in
the Atibainha region, but also in PES initiatives in other regions. Furthermore, the
development of procedures for certification might become an alternative to certify some
projects for carbon sequestration that do not follow the official rules of the Clean
Development Mechanism (IPCC, 2001).
185
Finally, the PES system proposed in this thesis could be helpful for potential buyers of
ecosystem services enabling the identification of opportunities to finance conservation
using a systematic and legitimate strategy.
186
7.5 Implications of findings
In the previous sections it was demonstrated that there are several possibilities for using
the findings of this thesis for developing further research. However, there are a number
of implications of these findings beyond the development of future research. Five of the
most important of these implications are described below.
7.5.1 Stakeholders awareness of failures in the observance of legislation
During the development of this research, the map produced in chapter 3, which consists
of a geographic interpretation of law enforcement, was presented to various
stakeholders, including local authorities such as the public prosecutor, representatives
from the water company, government agencies, and local residents, for disseminating
the failures identified in the observance to the forest legislation. Subsequently, as a
result of this activity a term was prepared by the prosecutor and signed by some of the
authorities, stating their commitment in consulting the map when land use decisions
have to be made, in order to prevent expansion of the problems of non observance of
laws.
7.5.2 Costs of disrespecting the law
The estimated value for the loss of ecosystem services derived from the non observance
of forest laws, and the economic value maps of ecosystem services produced through
this thesis will become available for authorities as a tool to determine how to establish
compliance mechanisms for damage caused to the environment. For instance, this
information can be used to determine appropriate values of fines to be paid by someone
who causes deforestation. Thus, it is a contribution to the scientific information
available to support proper decision making by authorities.
7.5.3 Preliminary projects relating to carbon storage
The estimates of carbon stocks in forest biomass, described in chapter 4, have been used
by IPÊ – Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas, a local non governmental organization, as a
reference for determining how much carbon can be stored if native forests are restored
in the region. The specific purpose is the development of projects for forest restoration
with resources from companies that are interested in contributing to mitigate climate
change. According to information obtained from IPÊ, the interest of these companies in
the voluntary carbon market is likely to increase in the following decade. Therefore, it is
187
necessary to have information available about the capacity of forests to contribute to
mitigate climate change for facilitating the decisions of these companies to finance
projects for conservation and restoration.
7.5.4 Development of PES schemes
Several limitations and opportunities for PES schemes have been revealed in this thesis.
For instance, a considerable amount of money is expected to be raised from consumers
of water due to the recent development of the water policy in Brazil. However, such
policies depend on the development of guidelines for a proper use of these funds; i.e. to
apply to initiatives that can really contribute to improving the provision of ecosystem
services. Furthermore, some crucial scientific information about ecosystem services,
land users, and their interests was obtained. These results are therefore expected to be
used in policies, including the development of projects based on mechanisms of
payments for ecosystem services.
188
7.6 References
Amazonas, 2007. Lei Estadual 3135 de 04 de junho de 2007. Assembléia Legislativa,
Manaus.
Bateman I.J., Lovett A.A., Brainard J.S., 2002. Applied Environmental Economics: a
GIS approach to cost-benefit analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bateman I.J., Jones A.P., Lovett A.A., Lake I.R., Day B.H., 2002. Applying
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to Environmental and Resource Economics.
Environmental and Resource Economics, 22:219-269.
Brasil, 1965. Codigo Florestal Brasileiro: lei 4771 de 15 de setembro de 1965. Câmara
dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 1997. Lei 9433 de 08 de janeiro de 1997. Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brasil, 2006. Lei da Mata Atlântica: lei Federal 11428 de 22 de dezembro de 2006.
Câmara dos Deputados, Brasília.
Brown S., 1997. Estimating Biomass and Biomass Change of Tropical Forests: a
Primer. FAO Forestry Paper 134, Rome.
Brown S., Lugo A.E., 1984. Biomass of Tropical Forests - A New Estimate Based on
Forest Volumes. Science, 223:1290-1293.
Capoor K., Ambrosi P., 2007. State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2007. The World
Bank, Washington.
Duraiappah A.K., 2006. Markets for Ecosystem Services: a potential tool for
Multilateral Environmental Agreements. IISD, Winnipeg.
Eade J.D.O., Moran D., 1996. Spatial Economic Valuation: Benefits Transfer using
Geographical Information Systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 48:97-110.
Fankhauser S., 1995. Valuing Climate Change: the economics of the greenhouse.
Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
189
Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica, INPE, ISA, 1998. Atlas da evolução dos remanescentes
florestais e ecossistemas associados no domínio da Mata Atlântica no período 19901995. Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica, São Paulo.
Holling C.S., Meffe G.K., 1996. Command-and-control and the Pathology of Natural
Resource Management. Conservation Biology, 10(2): 328-337.
IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: the scientific basis. Houghton J.T., Ding Y., Griggs
D.J., Noguer M., Van der Linden P.J., Dai X., Askell K., Johnson C.A. (Ed.).
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lakany H.E., Jenkins M., Richards M., 2007. Background paper on means of
implementation: contribution by PROFOR to discussions at UNFF-7. PROFOR –
Program on Forests, Washington.
Li J., Ren Z.Y., Zhou Z.X., 2006. Ecosystem services and their values: a case study in
the Qinba mountains of China. Ecological Research, 21:597-604.
Mattos L., Faleiro A., Pereira C., 2001. Uma proposta alternativa para o
desenvolvimento da produção familiar rural da Amazonia: o caso do Proambiente. IV
Encontro Nacional da Sociedade Brasileira de Economia Ecológica (ECOECO), Belém.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2000. Ecosystems and Human Well being: A
Framework for Assessment. Island Press, Washington.
Myers N, Mittermeier R.A., Mittermeier C.G., Da Fonseca G.A.B., Kent J., 2000.
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772):853-858.
Pagiola S., 2004. Paying for Water Services in Central America: Learning from Costa
Rica. In: Pagiola, S.; Bishop, J.; Landell-Mills, N. Selling Forest Environmentla
Services: Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development. Earthscan,
London.
Sanchez-Azofeifa G.A., Pfaff A., Robalino J.A., Boomhower J.P., 2007. Costa Rica's
Payment for Environmental Services Program: Intention, Implementation, and Impact.
Conservation Biology 21(5):1165-1173.
190
Santos R. F., 2004. Planejamento Ambiental: teoria e prática. Oficina de Textos, São
Paulo.
Stern N., 2007. The Economics of climate change: the Stern review. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Torras M., 2000. The total economic value of Amazonian deforestation 1978-1993.
Ecological Economics, 33:283-297.
Troy A., Wilson M.A., 2006. Mapping ecosystem services: Practical challenges and
opportunities in linking GIS and value transfer. Ecological Economics, 60:435-449.
191
APPENDIX 2.1.
Area of land uses and domains in the catchments around the Atibainha reservoir.
Catchment
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
Total
area
28.40
16.02
10.71
49.01
15.34
106.24
52.54
34.42
102.87
77.61
29.93
103.46
13.60
106.74
28.69
10.64
21.07
29.19
10.21
28.56
12.54
46.81
26.39
37.17
13.77
34.07
30.55
16.14
20.33
22.84
33.82
26.22
28.17
41.74
24.08
65.42
42.55
35.78
19.58
27.30
43.18
32.97
29.91
33.08
23.78
39.76
22.62
19.42
46.47
30.91
38.81
66.76
41.63
29.00
31.03
30.60
88.60
23.38
50.91
26.03
23.65
14.51
19.50
100.04
29.93
36.62
10.93
19.02
20.03
19.49
41.81
14.81
17.61
49.99
47.60
9.25
14.10
36.62
198.81
69.93
19.23
19.40
51.32
96.77
64.36
20.49
31.03
38.33
14.85
11.04
55.75
61.29
31.50
16.55
Native
forest
7.57
0.14
3.83
19.05
11.53
50.49
16.43
17.46
31.10
49.81
18.72
34.70
12.46
38.77
17.94
3.74
11.33
3.34
0.00
11.25
7.04
27.10
11.94
8.21
9.84
21.91
18.92
3.17
19.09
8.49
12.28
10.55
13.66
35.26
22.27
36.95
22.83
13.14
12.21
22.85
2.94
6.72
21.02
14.74
7.53
22.64
10.99
10.22
22.35
12.70
22.94
28.59
21.78
8.72
12.07
24.08
72.09
16.16
19.60
0.54
7.89
10.80
4.27
59.41
21.08
7.98
1.47
5.79
7.37
0.00
41.68
0.00
2.29
16.86
15.91
8.35
1.83
20.77
53.09
32.69
6.09
9.67
31.74
30.34
51.79
20.44
31.03
38.28
10.49
4.30
14.27
13.20
24.97
10.76
Household
6.85
0.19
2.68
0.59
0.17
14.36
5.44
6.62
31.53
0.00
5.51
1.04
0.00
8.74
0.00
0.04
0.10
12.17
0.00
1.67
0.00
3.47
8.05
17.12
2.69
0.00
1.19
5.51
0.00
8.86
13.39
0.28
0.00
0.99
0.00
0.88
0.68
14.96
0.78
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.25
0.00
0.41
2.70
2.65
0.00
11.30
0.00
2.13
26.08
5.32
11.26
4.14
0.00
1.26
3.77
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.33
0.55
12.49
0.00
4.54
0.00
0.00
0.87
1.21
0.00
0.63
0.00
1.14
15.57
0.00
0.00
8.67
19.31
24.97
0.00
0.00
2.59
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.07
1.39
2.65
20.52
0.00
2.07
Eucalyptus
1.15
0.13
0.00
0.00
2.23
22.45
1.66
2.25
16.58
1.91
2.54
21.00
0.00
1.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.82
0.01
3.89
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
6.26
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.14
1.01
1.49
1.51
0.00
7.03
12.01
0.00
0.00
7.32
1.58
0.00
0.00
6.47
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.08
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.08
0.00
4.97
0.00
0.00
10.75
0.00
8.51
3.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.12
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
28.34
3.98
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.36
9.46
1.12
0.00
0.00
Hotels
Sabesp
Pasture
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.65
0.00
0.19
0.00
0.00
2.67
0.00
0.00
3.66
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.54
0.00
7.56
0.00
0.00
0.00
12.47
1.85
0.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.13
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
12.29
0.00
2.78
4.84
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.63
0.00
0.00
7.15
0.00
24.60
16.00
5.84
11.47
7.90
14.40
41.17
0.32
9.01
37.47
12.35
0.13
13.39
2.33
21.49
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.65
2.07
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
27.80
0.19
6.15
0.01
21.52
5.49
20.54
0.00
8.86
47.31
22.70
0.69
1.03
26.37
0.00
2.31
3.02
32.88
0.00
0.00
10.16
19.40
0.00
12.78
26.40
14.91
0.00
8.61
0.00
13.81
30.56
5.34
35.88
0.00
22.57
12.01
0.00
0.00
28.04
19.45
10.90
0.00
13.61
0.00
13.41
0.00
11.94
0.00
0.00
9.21
0.00
12.52
0.00
39.63
19.18
9.54
22.88
3.84
44.44
0.00
0.09
0.00
11.60
7.60
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
14.43
15.29
4.24
13.07
0.54
11.28
27.95
6.09
21.53
19.59
6.25
41.68
0.98
55.69
6.91
6.57
9.62
25.29
10.18
15.64
3.95
8.16
6.74
16.35
3.19
11.94
10.43
6.41
0.59
3.86
12.44
3.02
13.78
5.52
0.12
21.11
18.28
15.18
2.35
3.17
23.54
12.76
7.07
2.44
0.26
11.72
8.14
8.47
10.80
11.33
13.77
27.09
15.01
14.69
10.91
4.61
5.31
3.29
16.81
16.12
9.84
1.53
2.01
4.64
6.65
15.11
0.00
0.00
8.96
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.42
6.35
0.00
5.50
0.71
102.99
5.19
3.68
0.10
4.34
8.41
2.51
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.09
23.80
23.23
0.00
1.49
Catchment
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
TOTAL
Total
area
40.34
10.43
33.55
27.57
11.44
25.26
36.20
63.80
63.51
38.47
48.87
86.02
31.73
11.61
65.39
49.66
71.66
13.04
15.04
92.04
42.99
52.55
10.72
46.57
42.03
40.52
10.62
13.17
57.17
25.50
12.99
16.39
21.10
174.37
24.91
14.56
29.59
29.14
41.39
144.92
19.86
80.84
32.92
19.99
18.10
18.20
39.22
33.06
20.13
30.17
11.31
23.16
98.16
62.43
27.34
39.69
42.94
12.57
46.66
14.94
26.86
59.45
33.49
25.30
53.37
52.25
57.04
25.61
32.62
36.90
22.34
10.08
10.66
30.50
57.23
53.65
42.32
77.55
127.62
60.50
57.89
10.67
140.98
183.44
42.31
29.46
25.30
90.95
21.41
11.92
33.94
28.39
75.62
57.21
7638.86
Native
forest
5.77
6.90
21.30
16.48
9.41
2.51
6.84
48.03
28.95
34.64
47.98
14.64
7.49
6.70
55.62
2.95
10.21
12.82
4.39
56.15
37.48
48.29
10.55
36.35
23.10
1.90
8.26
12.59
25.91
23.59
2.97
14.36
13.42
86.48
6.91
5.92
14.63
17.82
41.31
48.85
19.70
31.49
2.20
17.33
3.19
5.61
26.02
26.37
12.69
6.79
0.18
21.90
48.63
11.01
8.60
31.13
2.88
11.08
39.21
12.05
7.26
47.04
23.61
9.52
50.83
51.08
28.66
1.35
6.84
26.72
22.34
9.47
3.90
3.66
33.21
43.44
34.82
50.24
35.51
7.73
12.58
4.65
53.64
57.78
28.52
16.96
10.62
20.79
4.40
11.73
5.74
25.91
53.85
40.84
3736.48
Household
0.74
4.13
0.00
0.00
1.72
15.06
3.68
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
26.18
0.69
5.24
11.27
6.52
0.37
0.50
0.00
9.36
0.00
0.54
0.00
11.14
6.56
1.34
1.11
0.00
13.19
0.00
0.00
2.30
6.07
31.36
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
19.25
0.00
14.41
0.00
2.96
0.00
7.73
0.07
6.91
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
14.42
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.79
0.00
6.01
22.08
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.19
1.57
1.60
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.47
1.16
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.81
0.00
1.88
0.98
0.53
0.00
2.85
2.54
0.00
0.01
4.25
0.00
0.00
0.74
0.00
1.03
0.00
653.72
Eucalyptus
5.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.27
2.48
1.71
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.78
10.74
0.00
0.00
6.22
0.00
0.00
0.64
0.00
5.84
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.52
6.45
0.13
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.04
0.00
5.43
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.51
3.48
0.13
0.90
6.45
0.00
3.13
6.55
12.76
2.98
0.00
23.02
0.00
0.00
3.70
24.55
7.27
6.68
36.70
0.22
6.99
0.00
3.25
0.10
0.58
0.00
0.00
0.02
7.09
3.03
5.14
0.02
0.00
0.47
0.90
3.33
0.29
0.52
0.67
8.78
3.23
22.55
40.01
6.10
77.92
41.19
3.75
0.57
8.60
52.77
0.00
0.00
22.25
0.07
0.59
0.00
745.38
Hotels
Sabesp
Pasture
0.00
0.00
10.97
0.00
0.00
6.05
1.29
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.60
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
9.51
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.62
0.00
4.52
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
120.43
0.00
0.00
0.00
14.81
0.00
0.00
4.56
37.19
5.85
28.94
0.00
21.54
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.39
0.00
51.32
0.08
34.71
6.88
0.00
16.92
0.00
6.58
0.00
0.00
8.10
12.82
0.00
0.00
6.38
24.87
6.85
0.00
4.37
0.00
0.00
18.97
0.00
9.06
0.00
18.08
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
13.09
0.00
0.00
11.39
39.61
39.50
0.17
0.00
14.93
0.00
0.00
33.48
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.30
0.00
0.00
3.13
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
21.50
0.15
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
26.26
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1512.51
26.07
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.00
2.62
14.60
7.83
34.43
0.00
0.01
16.31
8.61
1.27
0.00
40.48
63.70
0.00
8.41
16.75
2.50
0.62
0.00
0.49
12.07
32.17
1.64
0.00
18.73
0.87
5.42
1.83
7.06
71.95
13.00
7.91
14.66
7.46
0.07
74.34
0.00
31.81
24.14
1.51
11.65
0.00
0.00
0.51
7.21
0.00
11.12
1.23
17.87
26.44
7.34
0.73
3.13
0.99
0.15
2.86
12.75
4.22
9.30
15.78
2.34
0.23
15.79
20.22
5.23
9.60
0.00
0.00
0.01
18.56
0.00
9.48
4.47
8.57
91.60
25.23
4.29
0.01
10.08
76.56
4.91
6.52
11.86
6.40
16.74
0.18
4.77
0.72
18.13
15.16
2041.38
192
APPENDIX 4.1
Estimated sediment delivery (tons of sediment) in each catchment to each land use scenario.
“SPast” = pasture; “SFor” = native forest; “SEuc” = eucalyptus; “SUrb” = Urban area/exposed soil.
Catch
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Spas
1.186
0.319
0.414
3.599
0.679
5.131
2.786
1.073
8.688
6.106
4.375
7.193
1.696
3.923
3.468
0.149
1.275
0.787
0.609
1.084
0.794
12.553
1.682
2.427
3.349
13.317
2.253
0.921
4.221
3.710
1.645
6.493
1.160
7.895
1.482
13.911
2.435
3.071
3.342
23.434
3.501
9.591
2.100
8.263
2.237
11.598
7.356
SFor
0.008
0.002
0.003
0.023
0.004
0.033
0.018
0.007
0.056
0.039
0.028
0.046
0.011
0.025
0.022
0.001
0.008
0.005
0.004
0.007
0.005
0.080
0.011
0.016
0.021
0.085
0.014
0.006
0.027
0.024
0.011
0.042
0.007
0.051
0.009
0.089
0.016
0.020
0.021
0.150
0.022
0.061
0.013
0.053
0.014
0.074
0.047
SEuc
0.049
0.013
0.017
0.148
0.028
0.211
0.115
0.044
0.358
0.251
0.180
0.296
0.070
0.161
0.143
0.006
0.052
0.032
0.025
0.045
0.033
0.517
0.069
0.100
0.138
0.548
0.093
0.038
0.174
0.153
0.068
0.267
0.048
0.325
0.061
0.572
0.100
0.126
0.138
0.964
0.144
0.395
0.086
0.340
0.092
0.477
0.303
SUrb
248.965
66.975
86.870
755.256
142.456
1076.860
584.729
225.102
1823.320
1281.490
918.183
1509.590
355.878
823.290
727.741
31.273
267.524
165.139
127.827
227.591
166.650
2634.380
353.003
509.344
702.844
2794.540
472.826
193.285
885.702
778.577
345.311
1362.560
243.410
1656.770
310.958
2919.390
511.057
644.391
701.250
4917.430
734.730
2012.690
440.738
1734.060
469.474
2433.780
1543.580
Area
28.40
16.02
10.71
49.01
15.34
106.24
52.54
34.42
102.87
77.61
29.93
103.46
13.60
106.74
28.69
10.64
21.07
29.19
10.21
28.56
12.54
46.81
26.39
37.17
13.77
34.07
30.55
16.14
20.33
22.84
33.82
26.22
28.17
41.74
24.08
65.42
42.55
35.78
19.58
27.30
43.18
32.97
29.91
33.08
23.78
39.76
22.62
Catch
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
SPas
2.713
2.593
11.823
2.165
6.866
1.891
1.467
5.129
3.162
11.895
3.738
5.894
3.757
1.967
2.934
1.298
2.705
3.493
3.326
0.774
0.280
2.999
1.852
59.436
0.375
0.518
1.735
3.248
7.968
0.189
34.010
5.519
15.126
3.733
1.237
14.723
2.571
11.892
7.430
31.434
7.207
4.477
1.585
1.930
3.737
10.408
0.522
SFor
0.017
0.017
0.076
0.014
0.044
0.012
0.009
0.033
0.020
0.076
0.024
0.038
0.024
0.013
0.019
0.008
0.018
0.022
0.021
0.004
0.002
0.019
0.012
0.328
0.002
0.003
0.012
0.021
0.044
0.001
0.188
0.037
0.084
0.024
0.008
0.081
0.017
0.076
0.043
0.174
0.048
0.025
0.010
0.013
0.022
0.060
0.004
SEuc
0.112
0.107
0.487
0.089
0.283
0.078
0.060
0.211
0.130
0.489
0.154
0.243
0.155
0.081
0.121
0.053
0.105
0.144
0.137
0.040
0.011
0.123
0.076
3.050
0.018
0.021
0.068
0.134
0.409
0.007
1.745
0.215
0.776
0.154
0.051
0.755
0.100
0.489
0.361
1.613
0.280
0.230
0.065
0.075
0.181
0.505
0.020
SUrb
569.238
544.250
2480.930
454.421
1440.850
396.888
307.841
1076.350
663.650
2496.280
784.346
1236.910
788.379
412.761
615.767
272.384
631.269
732.927
698.006
77.508
65.242
629.334
388.620
5949.140
41.708
108.759
405.017
681.683
797.596
44.049
3404.290
1288.130
1514.110
783.343
259.669
1473.830
600.155
2495.600
827.168
3146.430
1682.110
448.097
332.551
450.542
416.016
1158.740
121.922
Area
19.42
46.47
30.91
38.81
66.76
41.63
29.00
31.03
30.60
88.60
23.38
50.91
26.03
23.65
14.51
19.50
100.04
29.93
36.62
10.93
19.02
20.03
19.49
41.81
14.81
17.61
49.99
47.60
9.25
14.10
36.62
198.81
69.93
19.23
19.40
51.32
96.77
64.36
20.49
31.03
38.33
14.85
11.04
55.75
61.29
31.50
16.55
Catch
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
SPas
2.807
3.602
4.913
3.429
5.891
9.354
4.195
17.926
14.090
2.279
4.916
3.472
2.102
3.432
7.824
11.117
19.221
1.910
1.058
39.456
9.563
3.493
0.522
5.341
31.622
3.585
3.562
5.972
4.215
1.233
0.363
6.572
3.280
13.830
0.636
0.671
1.513
2.375
14.178
10.859
2.003
6.640
1.620
5.287
0.838
2.910
11.171
SFor
0.016
0.021
0.033
0.019
0.034
0.052
0.024
0.115
0.078
0.015
0.033
0.020
0.014
0.020
0.053
0.061
0.106
0.012
0.007
0.218
0.061
0.022
0.003
0.036
0.175
0.023
0.020
0.038
0.028
0.008
0.002
0.042
0.021
0.088
0.004
0.004
0.010
0.015
0.091
0.069
0.013
0.042
0.010
0.034
0.005
0.019
0.071
SEuc
0.136
0.175
0.191
0.176
0.286
0.480
0.204
0.738
0.723
0.094
0.191
0.168
0.082
0.167
0.305
0.570
0.986
0.079
0.041
2.025
0.394
0.144
0.021
0.208
1.623
0.148
0.183
0.246
0.164
0.051
0.015
0.270
0.135
0.569
0.026
0.028
0.062
0.098
0.583
0.447
0.082
0.273
0.067
0.218
0.034
0.120
0.460
SUrb
312.536
401.063
1146.660
343.257
655.826
936.306
467.043
3761.700
1410.390
478.201
1147.380
386.578
490.675
382.075
1826.190
1112.780
1924.010
400.833
246.852
3949.450
2006.750
732.991
109.523
1246.560
3165.300
752.312
356.602
1253.090
983.844
258.796
76.200
1379.170
688.238
2902.450
133.491
140.779
317.435
498.405
2975.320
2278.960
420.407
1393.520
339.933
1109.540
175.846
610.725
2344.210
Area
40.34
10.43
33.55
27.57
11.44
25.26
36.20
63.80
63.51
38.47
48.87
86.02
31.73
11.61
65.39
49.66
71.66
13.04
15.04
92.04
42.99
52.55
10.72
46.57
42.03
40.52
10.62
13.17
57.17
25.50
12.99
16.39
21.10
174.37
24.91
14.56
29.59
29.14
41.39
144.92
19.86
80.84
32.92
19.99
18.10
18.20
39.22
Catch
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
SPas
5.027
6.627
6.993
2.977
12.429
7.781
5.975
5.502
39.134
4.309
1.150
15.995
1.846
5.338
11.609
4.810
8.615
9.082
13.836
19.098
2.023
0.837
7.909
8.292
3.472
0.149
1.151
45.571
26.529
37.213
16.827
28.878
4.225
1.438
0.833
109.546
42.321
1.535
44.187
3.785
3.471
7.806
4.499
1.072
23.166
21.791
4.832
SFor
0.032
0.042
0.045
0.019
0.080
0.050
0.038
0.035
0.250
0.028
0.007
0.102
0.012
0.029
0.074
0.031
0.055
0.058
0.089
0.122
0.013
0.006
0.051
0.046
0.022
0.001
0.008
0.252
0.170
0.206
0.108
0.185
0.024
0.010
0.005
0.605
0.271
0.010
0.244
0.022
0.023
0.050
0.029
0.007
0.128
0.139
0.031
SEuc
0.207
0.273
0.288
0.123
0.511
0.320
0.246
0.226
1.610
0.177
0.047
0.658
0.076
0.274
0.478
0.198
0.355
0.374
0.569
0.786
0.083
0.033
0.325
0.425
0.143
0.006
0.045
2.338
1.092
1.909
0.692
1.188
0.205
0.056
0.040
5.621
1.742
0.060
2.267
0.184
0.135
0.321
0.185
0.042
1.189
0.897
0.199
SUrb
1054.890
1390.790
1467.450
624.719
2608.120
1632.860
1253.970
1154.670
8212.130
904.239
241.364
3356.610
387.456
534.348
2436.120
1009.320
1807.900
1905.960
2903.510
4007.740
424.505
195.392
1659.760
830.033
728.547
34.811
268.597
4561.570
5566.880
3724.930
3531.230
6060.210
470.371
335.736
92.731
10965.300
8881.250
358.223
4422.810
421.336
810.268
1638.150
943.970
250.291
2318.880
4572.820
1014.150
Area
33.06
20.13
30.17
11.31
23.16
98.16
62.43
27.34
39.69
42.94
12.57
46.66
14.94
26.86
59.45
33.49
25.30
53.37
52.25
57.04
25.61
32.62
36.90
22.34
10.08
10.66
30.50
57.23
53.65
42.32
77.55
127.62
60.50
57.89
10.67
140.98
183.44
42.31
29.46
25.30
90.95
21.41
11.92
33.94
28.39
75.62
57.21
193
APPENDIX 4.2
Sediment delivery rates (Kg/ha/year) for the different catchments with forests (PSDf), eucalyptys (PSDe), pastures (PSDp), and current land uses (CurS).
Catch
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
PSDf
(Kg/ha)
8767
4179
8108
15408
9288
10136
11129
6539
17724
16511
30674
14591
26167
7713
25366
2938
12696
5658
12523
7968
13290
56276
13377
13702
51029
82030
15474
11973
43556
34090
10210
51959
8641
39695
12913
44621
12011
18009
35810
180123
17015
61050
14737
52419
19740
61209
68228
PSDe
(Kg/ha)
8766
4179
8106
15406
9286
10134
11128
6538
17721
16508
30669
14589
26162
7712
25362
2937
12693
5657
12521
7967
13288
56267
13374
13700
51020
82016
15472
11971
43548
34084
10208
51951
8639
39688
12910
44614
12009
18006
35804
180094
17012
61040
14734
52410
19736
61199
68216
PSDp
(Kg/ha)
8726
4160
8069
15335
9244
10088
11077
6508
17640
16433
30529
14522
26043
7676
25246
2924
12635
5631
12464
7931
13227
56009
13313
13638
50787
81641
15401
11916
43349
33929
10162
51713
8600
39507
12851
44410
11954
17924
35640
179271
16934
60761
14667
52170
19646
60919
67905
CurS
(Kg)
208273
66275
73149
566883
130989
906763
511937
174994
1226452
1250526
874372
1435228
351151
748838
725841
28867
265716
150488
126860
211468
161221
2404464
272507
358287
529658
2763272
453028
106161
856956
420942
289643
1126040
236979
1633637
288077
2834828
489100
567749
623122
4882046
731331
1889538
414932
1701623
465165
2220190
1258485
Catch
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
PSDf
PSDe
PSDp
CurS
29305
11713
80270
11709
21582
9534
10614
34689
21687
28175
33544
24297
30287
17453
42431
13971
6310
24488
19059
7090
3431
31425
19934
142267
2817
6176
8101
14321
86198
3124
92964
6479
21652
40739
13385
28720
6202
38773
40360
101382
43889
30165
30132
8081
6787
36789
7369
29300
11711
80256
11707
21578
9532
10613
34683
21684
28170
33539
24293
30282
17450
42424
13968
6309
24484
19055
7087
3430
31420
19931
142202
2816
6175
8100
14319
86158
3124
92922
6478
21642
40732
13383
28706
6201
38766
40344
101335
43883
30151
30127
8080
6784
36775
7368
29167
11657
79890
11654
21480
9489
10564
34525
21585
28042
33385
24182
30144
17371
42230
13904
6283
24372
18968
7019
3416
31276
19840
140854
2792
6147
8067
14253
85341
3111
92040
6452
21436
40546
13322
28434
6175
38589
39999
100374
43703
29866
29989
8047
6726
36460
7337
559029
440227
2291335
428467
1275486
350050
244935
959430
645688
2311306
617680
1071996
702854
393851
516396
140445
556565
706568
437442
73617
59282
519240
348993
5934699
34246
74152
371571
443832
720086
36209
2443153
1206392
992099
729801
216844
1210361
572231
2198742
825071
3143296
1677835
316488
156195
415613
344182
1126450
90237
Catch
PSDf
PSDe
PSDp
CurS
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
7748
38446
34181
12449
57319
37068
12900
58955
22205
12431
23477
4494
15464
32897
27928
22408
26847
30741
16409
42909
46678
13947
10214
26765
75301
18564
33568
95109
17210
10149
5864
84128
32624
16645
5359
9670
10726
17105
71891
15725
21169
17238
10326
55506
9713
33548
59762
7745
38431
34176
12443
57297
37051
12895
58945
22195
12429
23473
4492
15462
32884
27924
22398
26835
30736
16406
42890
46671
13945
10212
26761
75267
18561
33553
95093
17207
10147
5863
84114
32618
16642
5358
9668
10725
17102
71879
15723
21165
17235
10324
55497
9711
33542
59752
7678
38102
34036
12325
56808
36700
12785
58676
21984
12372
23377
4454
15399
32603
27809
22185
26580
30596
16339
42483
46457
13881
10165
26651
74553
18476
33235
94659
17136
10101
5836
83730
32469
16566
5334
9624
10676
17024
71551
15651
21068
17156
10277
55243
9667
33389
59479
303762
343058
1098947
327279
599255
193711
304055
3631641
1386224
459994
1135714
163642
476532
358231
1664511
1039644
1859585
391961
245345
3254406
1914297
701557
107928
1187050
2707464
656636
336067
1224448
878527
255456
70461
1359012
611952
2778871
125200
118725
313453
481798
2965029
2171329
419725
1280388
314141
1008430
173986
439095
2314909
Catch
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
PSDf
PSDe
PSDp
CurS
31904
69100
48639
55247
112605
16634
20086
42236
206896
21058
19196
71941
25936
19896
40977
30137
71449
35711
55571
70262
16578
5989
44978
37155
72295
3266
8806
79695
103755
88006
45535
47483
7775
5800
8693
77774
48414
8466
150110
16656
8909
76529
79180
7375
81675
60471
17727
31898
69089
48631
55238
112587
16631
20082
42229
206862
21055
19193
71929
25931
19887
40970
30132
71437
35705
55561
70251
16575
5988
44970
37138
72283
3266
8804
79658
103738
87966
45527
47476
7772
5799
8690
77739
48406
8465
150041
16650
8908
76516
79167
7374
81637
60461
17724
31753
68773
48409
54985
112072
16555
19991
42036
205916
20958
19105
71600
25813
19698
40783
29994
71111
35542
55307
69930
16500
5964
44765
36785
71953
3252
8768
78903
103263
87131
45319
47259
7705
5775
8616
77002
48185
8430
148618
16507
8871
76167
78805
7343
80863
60185
17643
916965
1373191
1460584
621752
2394168
1460263
1232652
1085510
8117177
899029
235842
3269256
386235
463017
2071359
1008275
1801008
1898561
2882588
3681968
409678
179416
1630524
829987
728042
19793
251879
4501292
5474280
3639468
3339423
6035209
450861
320940
88877
10648759
8623722
321482
4395161
395597
786555
1419475
941708
235165
2024527
4112507
913888
194
APPENDIX 5.1
Economic values of prevention of sediment delivery in the reservoir due to current land uses in each catchment.
Catchment
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
Prevention of
sedimentation (U$/year)
162.45
51.69
57.06
442.17
102.17
707.27
399.31
136.50
956.63
975.41
682.01
1119.48
273.90
584.09
566.16
22.52
207.26
117.38
98.95
164.94
125.75
1875.48
212.56
279.46
413.13
2155.35
353.36
82.81
668.43
328.34
225.92
878.31
184.84
1274.24
224.70
2211.17
381.50
442.84
486.04
3808.00
570.44
1473.84
323.65
1327.27
362.83
1731.75
981.62
436.04
343.38
1787.24
334.20
994.88
273.04
191.05
748.36
503.64
1802.82
481.79
836.16
548.23
307.20
402.79
109.55
Catchment
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
Prevention of
sedimentation (U$/year)
434.12
551.12
341.20
57.42
46.24
405.01
272.21
4629.07
26.71
57.84
289.83
346.19
561.67
28.24
1905.66
940.99
773.84
569.25
169.14
944.08
446.34
1715.02
643.56
2451.77
1308.71
246.86
121.83
324.18
268.46
878.63
70.38
236.93
267.59
857.18
255.28
467.42
151.09
237.16
2832.68
1081.25
358.80
885.86
127.64
371.69
279.42
1298.32
810.92
1450.48
305.73
191.37
2538.44
1493.15
547.21
84.18
925.90
2111.82
512.18
262.13
955.07
685.25
199.26
54.96
1060.03
Catchment
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
Prevention of
sedimentation (U$/year)
477.32
2167.52
97.66
92.61
244.49
375.80
2312.72
1693.64
327.39
998.70
245.03
786.58
135.71
342.49
1805.63
715.23
1071.09
1139.26
484.97
1867.45
1139.00
961.47
846.70
6331.40
701.24
183.96
2550.02
301.26
361.15
1615.66
786.45
1404.79
1480.88
2248.42
2871.94
319.55
139.94
1271.81
647.39
567.87
15.44
196.47
3511.01
4269.94
2838.78
2604.75
4707.46
351.67
250.33
69.32
8306.03
6726.50
250.76
3428.23
308.57
613.51
1107.19
734.53
183.43
1579.13
3207.76
712.83
195
APPENDIX 5.2
Economic values of prevention of sediment delivery in the reservoir in hypothetical homogeneous scenarios of pasture,
eucalyptus and native forest.
Catchment
U$
100%Pas
U$
100%Euc
U$
100For
Catchment
U$
100%Pas
U$
100%Euc
U$
100For
Catchment
U$
100%Pas
U$
100%Euc
U$
100For
0
162
163
163
63
433
434
435
126
476
478
478
1
52
52
52
64
549
552
552
127
2,161
2,171
2,171
2
57
57
57
65
340
342
342
128
97
98
98
3
441
443
443
66
57
58
58
129
92
93
93
4
102
102
102
67
46
46
46
130
244
245
245
5
705
708
708
68
404
406
406
131
375
376
376
6
399
400
400
69
272
273
274
132
2,302
2,312
2,313
7
136
137
137
70
4,583
4,627
4,629
133
1,690
1,698
1,698
8
953
958
958
71
27
27
27
134
326
327
327
9
972
977
977
72
58
58
58
135
996
1,001
1,001
10
679
683
683
73
289
290
290
136
245
246
246
11
1,116
1,121
1,122
74
345
347
347
137
783
787
787
12
273
274
274
75
556
561
562
138
135
136
136
13
583
586
586
76
28
28
28
139
341
342
343
1,806
14
564
567
567
77
1,890
1,908
1,909
140
1,797
1,805
15
22
23
23
78
939
943
943
141
712
715
715
16
207
208
208
79
768
776
776
142
1,067
1,072
1,073
1,139
17
117
118
118
80
568
571
571
143
1,134
1,139
18
99
99
99
81
169
169
169
144
485
487
487
19
165
165
165
82
937
946
946
145
1,859
1,868
1,868
1,141
20
125
126
126
83
445
447
447
146
1,135
1,141
21
1,867
1,875
1,876
84
1,707
1,715
1,715
147
959
963
963
22
212
213
213
85
638
643
644
148
844
848
848
6,332
23
279
280
280
86
2,427
2,451
2,452
149
6,302
6,331
24
411
413
413
87
1,303
1,309
1,309
150
698
701
702
25
2,149
2,159
2,159
88
244
247
247
151
183
184
184
2,550
26
352
354
354
89
121
122
122
152
2,538
2,550
27
83
83
83
90
324
325
325
153
300
301
302
28
665
668
669
91
268
270
270
154
359
363
363
1,616
29
327
329
329
92
872
879
880
155
1,609
1,616
30
225
226
227
93
70
70
70
156
784
787
787
31
875
879
879
94
236
238
238
157
1,403
1,409
1,409
32
184
185
185
95
266
268
268
158
1,474
1,481
1,481
33
1,269
1,275
1,275
96
855
858
858
159
2,238
2,248
2,248
2,876
34
224
225
225
97
253
256
256
160
2,862
2,875
35
2,204
2,214
2,215
98
464
468
468
161
319
321
321
36
380
382
382
99
150
151
151
162
139
140
140
1,273
37
442
444
444
100
236
238
238
163
1,267
1,273
38
484
486
486
101
2,822
2,835
2,835
164
641
647
647
39
3,793
3,810
3,811
102
1,076
1,087
1,087
165
565
568
568
40
570
572
572
103
357
359
359
166
15
15
15
41
1,470
1,476
1,477
104
882
886
886
167
196
197
197
42
323
324
324
105
127
128
128
168
3,476
3,509
3,511
43
1,324
1,330
1,330
106
371
372
372
169
4,253
4,273
4,273
44
362
363
363
107
278
280
280
170
2,815
2,842
2,843
45
1,726
1734
1,734
108
1,293
1,299
1,299
171
2,594
2,606
2,607
4,722
46
979
983
983
109
809
817
817
172
4,700
4,722
47
435
437
437
110
1,448
1,462
1,463
173
350
353
353
48
342
344
344
111
304
306
306
174
249
251
251
49
1,783
1,792
1,792
112
191
192
192
175
69
69
69
50
333
335
335
113
2,520
2,544
2,545
176
8,239
8,318
8,322
6,741
51
992
997
997
114
1,487
1,493
1,494
177
6,709
6,740
52
272
274
274
115
545
547
547
178
250
251
251
53
191
192
192
116
84
84
84
179
3,403
3,435
3,437
54
746
750
750
117
923
926
926
180
307
310
310
55
502
504
504
118
2,097
2,117
2,118
181
611
614
614
1,111
56
1,795
1,804
1,804
119
512
514
514
182
1,106
1,111
57
480
482
482
120
260
262
263
183
731
734
735
58
834
838
838
121
951
955
955
184
183
184
184
59
548
551
551
122
684
687
687
185
1,563
1,578
1,579
60
306
308
308
123
198
199
199
186
3,195
3,210
3,211
61
401
403
403
124
55
55
55
187
710
713
714
62
109
110
110
125
1,056
1,060
1,061
TOTAL
176,310
177,334
177,376
196