Articles
177
by J. Brilha1, C. Andrade2, A. Azerêdo2, F.J.A.S. Barriga2,3, M. Cachão2, H. Couto4, P.P. Cunha5,
J.A. Crispim2,6, P. Dantas3, L.V. Duarte5, M.C. Freitas2, H.M. Granja1, M.H. Henriques5,
P. Henriques7, L. Lopes8, J. Madeira2, J.M.X. Matos7, F. Noronha4, J. Pais9, J. Piçarra7,
M.M. Ramalho10, J.M.R.S. Relvas2, A. Ribeiro2, A. Santos11, V.F. Santos3, and P. Terrinha2
Definition of the Portuguese frameworks with
international relevance as an input for the
European geological heritage characterisation
1) University of Minho; 2) University of Lisbon; 3) National Natural History Museum; 4) University of Porto; 5) University of Coimbra; 6) Portuguese Speleological Society; 7) INETInovação; 8) University of Évora; 9) New University of Lisbon; 10) League for Nature Protection; 11)
University of Algarve. Corresponding author: José Brilha, Earth Sciences Department, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057
Braga, Portugal ([email protected])
This work constitutes the first contribution for the systematisation of geological heritage knowledge in Portugal, following the international recommendations for
the characterisation of geological heritage (IUGS, ProGEO). The application of the ProGEO methodology has
resulted in the creation of fourteen frameworks with
international relevance, established by consensus
among the Portuguese geological community. The
description of each category in this paper is not exhaustive and only the most relevant scientific settings are
presented. The following are the three key outcomes of
this work: i) At a national level, the most important
geosites are identified, indicating where geoconservation efforts should be prioritised based on scientific justification; ii) At a regional level, conditions have been
developed to foster dialogue with Spanish colleagues in
order to create Iberian frameworks; iii) At an international level, it is now possible to integrate Portuguese
geosites in to the global inventories promoted by IUGS,
UNESCO, and ProGEO.
Introduction (by J. Brilha)
The identification, characterisation, conservation, and grading
of geological heritage are gaining interest among the geological
community. During the 32nd International Congress, held in Italy on
August 2004, three thematic sessions were organised with about 160
oral and poster presentations. During the last decade, many countries
have developed several initiatives to increase knowledge of geological heritage. This individual effort brought different approaches to
this task making the establishment of a constructive dialogue
between specialists difficult.
In spite of national initiatives, the first step towards the organisation of inventory strategies was given by ProGEO (The European
Association for the Conservation of the Geological Heritage) following the GILGES work (of IUGS and UNESCO) and by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) (Wimbledon, 1996a).
In 1996, this international institution created Geosites: a project
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
engaged in the promotion of a factual basis to support national and
international geoconservation initiatives. Until 2004 the IUGS’s
Global Geosites Working Group, together with UNESCO and ProGEO, supported the establishment of national inventories and promoted links between neighbour countries (ProGEO, 1998).
Recently, IUGS changed the focus and direction of its efforts
towards geotourism and geoparks and GEOSEE was created in
2004. ProGEO continues with the construction of national and
regional comparative inventories in Europe, furthering the original
Geosites aims. The methodology proposed by the IUGS for national
inventories was defined during the First Workshop on Geosites at the
2nd International Symposium ProGEO on the Conservation of the
Geological Heritage held in Rome in 1996, based on ProGEO experience (Wimbledon et al., 1999). The inventory is founded on the
identification of geological thematic categories in each country
rather than on the recognition of isolated sites. The definition of
national frameworks systematises local inventories and allows the
establishment of trans-national comparisons (Wimbledon, 1996b).
This comparison and correlation task has already been initiated in
Scandinavian countries (Fredén et al., 2004), Baltic states (Satkunas
et al., 2004) and southeastern European countries (TheodossiouDrandaki et al., 2004), mainly promoted by ProGEO.
In Portugal, the inventory, characterisation and valuation of
geological heritage has been done in an unsystematic manner. A list
of outstanding geosites and places at risk has been collected with
contributions from the former Geological Survey, National Natural
History Museum, University Geology Departments and League for
Nature Protection. Unfortunately, the state institutions responsible
for Nature Conservation policies have never adopted geoconservation approaches as a priority. The few conserved geosites have
resulted from occasional and local circumstances with no continuity.
The Portuguese ProGEO group, created in 2000, congregates
geologists from a majority of the geological institutions. This group
decided to implement in Portugal the methodologies suggested by
IUGS and ProGEO and started the work of defining national frameworks of international relevance. This priority was established in
order to provide a Portuguese entry for the Geosites list and to promote a dialogue with Spanish colleagues (Garcia-Cortés et al.,
2001).
The process was opened to all national geological institutions
and publicised by circulars and on the ProGEO-Portugal web site. In
May 2004, during an open meeting held in the former Geological
Survey headquarters, fourteen frameworks with international relevance were established:
– A geotraverse through the Variscan Fold Belt in Portugal;
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–
–
–
–
–
–
Geology and metallogenesis of the Iberian Pyrite Belt;
The Iberian W-Sn Metallogenic Province;
The Silurian of the Portuguese Ossa Morena Zone;
Meso-Cenozoic of the Algarve;
Low coasts of Portugal;
River network, rañas and Appalachian-type landscapes of the
Hesperic massif;
– Tertiary basins of the western Iberian margin;
– Jurassic record in the Lusitanian Basin;
– Dinosaurs of western Iberia;
– Ordovician fossils from Valongo Anticline;
– Karst systems of Portugal;
– South Portuguese Palaeozoic Marbles;
– The Azores Archipelago in the America-Eurasia-Africa triple
junction;
This paper is therefore the result of all contributions and suggestions. New well-justified proposals will be considered in a future revision of this work. The next immediate step will be the nomination of
the most relevant geosites representative of each framework, based on
an accurate identification, characterisation and quantification. These
geosites will constitute the most remarkable elements of geological
heritage in Portuguese territory. Therefore, they must be given a high
priority in any implementation of geoconservation strategies.
The fourteen frameworks are presented according to their geographical relevance illustrating the high geodiversity level in Portugal (Figure 1). The description of each category is not exhaustive and
just the most relevant scientific settings are presented.
A geotraverse through the Variscan Fold
Belt in Portugal (by A. Ribeiro)
The backbone of the Iberian Peninsula is formed by basement rocks
that are part of the Variscan Fold Belt. This Belt extends from Central Europe to Western Europe and Morocco delineating a series of
arcuate mountains. This belt was generated by the opening and closure of oceans of variable size between the upper Proterozoic (~540
Ma) and the upper Paleozoic (~250 Ma).
The best traverse across this Variscan Fold Belt is in the Iberian
Peninsula because: i) the transverse is the most complete, foreland
(Cantabrian Zone around Oviedo in NE Spain) to foreland (South Portuguese Zone in SW Portugal), and ii) the basement is exposed continuously if we avoid the Meso-Cenozoic basins in its borders and the discontinuous Cenozoic basins in the center of Iberia. Therefore, its pristine
geological features are preserved from more recent events related to the
opening of the Atlantic and closure of Tethys (Ribeiro et al., 1991).
Finally, the climatic conditions and vertical movements provide
beautiful exposures of rocks and structures in coastal cliffs, deep
rivers and elevated mountains. In fact, some of the most significant
exposures of the Belt are located at different spots in Iberia. They
contribute to a deeper understanding of the processes that shaped the
belt and its extension downwards to deeper crustal levels.
Geology and metallogenesis of Iberian
Pyrite Belt (by F.J.A.S. Barriga, J.M.R.S.
Relvas, J.M.X. Matos)
Figure 1 Geological map of Portugal.
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
The Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) contains a colossal amount of volcanic-hosted massive sulphides, with a pre-mining total of more
than 1750 Mt containing 22 Mt Cu, 34 Mt Zn and 12 Mt Pb,
respectively. This is comparable only, on a worldwide basis, to
the Urals Belt of Russia. However, while the Urals Belt extends
for nearly 2500 km, the IPB is only about 250 km long. Thus, the
concentration of sulphide ores is an order of magnitude greater in
the IPB.
The IPB has been mined continuously since the Chalcolithic
era. The Rio Tinto deposits of Spain, the first to gain world fame,
are considered the largest of their class ever to form, with over
500 Mt of sulphide ores. The Aljustrel and Neves Corvo deposits
(Portugal) are among the world’s richest deposits of their class in
Zn and Cu (>8Mt and >4Mt, respectively). Additionally, Neves
Corvo’s copper and tin ores depict the highest grades recorded for
deposits of their class (e.g. Carvalho et al., 1999; Relvas et al.,
2002).
The deposits are hosted by a well-preserved volcanic-sedimentary complex, in a tectonic setting interpreted to represent
continental fragments that collided obliquely during the Variscan
orogeny, following subduction of an oceanic realm. The tectonic
evolution produced thrusting and formation of pull-apart basins,
which host the deposits (see Tornos et al., 2002). The post-depositional history of the deposits is well recorded.
All geological and metallogenetic aspects of the IPB are
well studied and many constitute classic studies in the literature.
Detrital and chemical sedimentation, volcaniclastic deposition,
hydrothermal activity and mineralization, syn-sedimentary and
transpressive deformation are all clearly visible. Additionally, the
IPB is studied also through detailed comparisons with presentday submarine hydrothermal sites, including examples not only
in the Atlantic but also in the Pacific (e.g. Pacmanus in Papua
New Guinea). The IPB is still an actively studied geological
object. Among the main aspects being researched, we can mention sedimentation and its role with respect to mineralization,
submarine physical volcanology, the position of mineralization
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with respect to the coeval sea floor, and the origin of metals from different crustal reservoirs.
It should be noted that the erosion level deepens markedly from
West to East in the IPB. Thus, most mines in Portugal are underground, whereas in Spain open pits abound. This generates different
types of exposures and different degrees of weathering, adding to the
variety of situations to visit.
The trans-national Iberian Pyrite Belt has already been proposed for inclusion in the Geosites list of geological frameworks,
from a Spanish national point of view (Garcia-Cortez et al., 2001).
The present contribution is intended for fusion with the latter.
The Iberian W-Sn Metallogenic Province
(by F. Noronha)
The W/Sn province contains many spectacular exposures, in both
the field and underground. The Panasqueira mine specifically is a
world famous field trip destination. Many other occurrences and
ancient mines are easily accessible, including exposures with abundant scheelite, prone to nocturnal investigation with a mineralight. In
general, field relationships are easily seen and interpretable. The W
and/or Sn deposits are distributed through an area from Galicia to
Castilla (Spain) through Northern and Central Portugal. The Sn
deposits are mainly of pegmatitic type. The W deposits can be considered of two types: quartz vein type, the most important, and skarn type.
Where the W and/or Sn mineralization occurs we can see the presence
of granite intrusions in marine sedimentary series dated from Upper
Precambrian to Silurian (Neiva, 1944; Thadeu, 1973; Schermerhorn,
1981).
The Variscan granitic magmatism (orogenic) can be subdivided
in two groups: peraluminous granites or two-mica granites (muscovite
is the dominant mica); monzonitic granites and granodiorites (Ferreira
et al., 1987). The peraluminous granites (320 Ma – 300 Ma) are of
mesocrustal origin; the second group (300 – 290 Ma) originated deep
in the crust and corresponds to hotter dry magmas. Although Sn pegmatites occur mainly associated to the granites of the first group, the
W quartz veins are dominantly related with the second group of granites. The granites spatially associated with mineralization can be considered as “specialized” granites, where the “specialization” is related
with the mechanisms of concentration like magmatic differentiation
and/or late to post-magmatic events responsible for deuteric alteration.
The W content in granites associated with mineralization is low (<7
ppm) whereas the granites associated with Sn pegmatite mineralization are high (>30 ppm) (Derré et al., 1982). This means that magmatic
differentiation and/or late to post magmatic events cannot be solely
responsible for the W deposits, a contribution of geofluids is necessary
for ore genesis. The fluid inclusions in minerals of the main deposits,
like Panasqueira and Borralha, do not register the presence of magmatic fluids. The main fluids present in these W/Sn Variscan geothermal systems were meteoric fluids re-equilibrated after deep circulation
in the crust and then responsible for the mobilization of stock metal
from the rocks. The orebodies were deposited mainly in structural
traps (Kelly & Rye, 1979, Bussink et al., 1984; Polya, 1989; Noronha
et al., 1999).
The Silurian of the Portuguese Ossa
Morena Zone (by J.M. Piçarra)
The Barrancos area, within the southeastern Portuguese part of the
Ossa Morena Zone, contains the well-documented Silurian succession from Portugal (see Robardet et al., 1998, for references; Piçarra,
2000), which is now being used globally as a reference in
biochronostratigraphy and paleogeography.
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
The Graptolites (19 biozones recognized) are the most common
fossils, but other biological groups occur, such as orthoceratids,
bivalves, crinoids and hexactinellid sponges, like Protospongia iberica (Rigby et al., 1997).
The lowermost part of the Silurian succession assigned to the basal
Rhuddanian Parakidograptus acuminatus Biozone (Piçarra et al., 1995)
corresponds to the boundary beds of the Colorada and “Xistos com
Nódulos” formations. Graptolite-bearing rocks consist of quartzitic beds
and lydites alternating with black shales. It is followed by strongly
weathered black shales, 20-25 m thick, with rare lydite layers, that constitute the dominant lithofacies of the “Xistos com Nódulos” Formation.
This formation extends from the Rhuddanian Cystograptus vesiculosus
Biozone (lower Llandovery) up to the Gorstian Lobograptus scanicus
Biozones (lower Ludlow). The graptolite biozones identified in this
interval are: the Rhuddanian Coronograptus cyphus Biozone, the
Aeronian Demirastrites triangulatus, D. convolutus and Stimulograptus
sedgwickii biozones, the Telychian Spirograptus guerichi, S. turriculatus-Streptograptus crispus, Monoclimacis griestoniensis and Oktavites
spiralis biozones, the Sheinwoodian Cyrtograptus murchisoni and C.
rigidus biozones, the Homerian C. lundgreni, Pristiograptus parvusGothograptus nassa and Colonograptus? ludensis biozones, and the
Gorstian Neodiversograptus nilssoni Biozone. This part of sucession
includes a 12 cm thick yellow band that marks the Lundgreni Event of
graptolite extinction (Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 1996).
The uppermost Silurian strata are represented by the lower part
of the “Xistos Raiados” Formation, about 20-30 m thick. It consists
of dark siltstones alternating with shales yielding graptolites of the
Pridoli Neocolonograptus parultimus and Monograptus bouceki biozones (Piçarra et al., 1998).
The Silurian-Devonian boundary is placed in the first occurrence of graptolites of the basal Lochkovian Monograptus uniformis
Biozone (Piçarra, 1998), within those dark siltstones.
The Silurian succession of the Barrancos area is lithologically
and faunistically similar to that of the Peri-Gondwan Europe and
North Africa areas (i.e. Spanish Ossa Morena Zone, Catalunia, Sardinia, Saxothuringia, Barrandian and Morocco).
Meso-Cenozoic of the Algarve
(by M. Cachão, P. Terrinha, A. Santos)
By its geographical position, ENE-WSW orientation and lithological
diversity the Algarve geological province stands out as unique from
stratigraphic (from Late Triassic to Quaternary with major hiatus
from Cenomanian to Lower Miocene) and morpho-tectonic points of
view. The Variscan most external Carboniferous unit constitutes the
basement of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary packages,
deposited on two totally distinct superposed basins (Terrinha, 1998)
From Middle-Upper Triassic (Rhaetian) to Hetangian sediments evolved from continental (fluviatile red sandstones), to shallow marine, deposited over the entire Algarve region, including
evaporites and syn-sedimentary tholeiite fissural magmatism (Hettangian-Sinemurian Basaltic lava flows, volcanic ashes and pyroclasts) (Martins, 1991). To the south of the Tavira-Algoz-Sagres tectonic line, the Hettangian Silves pelites are richer in evaporite facies.
One of its salt walls, the Loulé diapir (Central Algarve), is currently
being explored in an underground mine. Subsidence and carbonate
platform conditions were established until the end of Jurassic. Lower
to Middle Jurassic reef barrier to open external platform facies outcrops at Sagres. Here Aalenian-Bajocian karstified reefs are covered
by Upper Bajocian-Lower Bathonian Zoophycus rich pelagic grey
marls (Praia da Mareta and Forte de Belixe) followed by Middle
Oxfordian condensed ammonite rich limestones indicating that the
Algarve Basin remained a Mediterranean sub-domain province of
the Tethyan domain (Rocha, 1976).
The most important tectonic inversion of the basin pre-dated the
Miocene (Terrinha, 1998), and includes the peralkaline (nepheline
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syenite) Late Cretaceous intrusion of Monchique, (Rock, 1979,
1982a, b).
The Middle Miocene Lagos-Portimão formation is correlative
of the global positive eustatic trend evidencing coastal marine sedimentation over a relatively stable and syn-betic remarkably minor
deformed cold limestone shelf platform, (Cachão, 1995; Cachão &
Silva, 2000; Brachert et al, 2003). An intra-Miocene stratigraphic
hiatus of 2.5 Ma led to generalized exposure and development of a
karst that magnificently influences present day coast line. Subsequent Cacela Formation indicates the Algarve margin became part of
the distal western boundary of the Guadalquivir foreland basin
(Cachão, 1995). Study on the classical mollusc fossil-site of Ribeira
de Cacela (Ria Formosa Natural Park), goes back to the mid-nineteenth century, with works by Pereira da Costa and Cotter and many
others (e.g. Antunes et al., 1981; Antunes & Pais, 1992; Cachão,
1995, González-Delgado et al., 1995; Santos, 2000).
Low coasts of Portugal (by M.C. Freitas, C.
Andrade, P.P. Cunha, H.M. Granja)
The Portuguese littoral contains numerous sections of low coast,
usually corresponding to wetlands, which are natural archives of
changes in coastal dynamics with great scientific value to reconstruct and understand palaeogeographical, palaeoclimatic and
palaeoenvironmental processes and effects since the Late Glacial.
Along the southern coast of Algarve, the complex system of Ria
Formosa is a well preserved unique non-coastal plain barrier island –
lagoonal structure. It connects with the magnificent marshes of the
Guadiana estuary through the beach-ridge and dune plains of Manta
Rota and forms the western border of the Gulf of Cadiz (Andrade &
Freitas, 2004). The Boca do Rio lowland, an infilled estuary, preserves the most complete and didactic geological record of tsunami
flooding (associated with the Lisbon event of 1755) known in the
European literature (Dawson et al., 1995).
The coastal lagoons of Santo André and Albufeira, together
with the estuaries of Mira, Sado and Tagus rivers, in the SW coast,
contain the most complete and continuous morphological and sedimentary records of sea level, vegetation and climate since the Late
Glacial (Freitas et al., 2002; 2003). These sites are key elements to
the understanding of past environmental changes along this coast
and to help predict responses in the context of expected global
change by climatic forcing. Further north the barrier-lagoon systems
of Óbidos, S. Martinho do Porto, Aveiro and the Mondego estuary
represent functional equivalents, yet located along a high-energy
wave-dominated coast (Cunha et al., 1997). Northward of the Mondego estuary a unique residual lagoon is located (Apúlia), that is a
geoindicator of a wider lagoon system present along the coast during
the Holocene. Between Aveiro and Nazaré a vast and well-preserved
dune field documents several generations of aeolian activity and
dune encroachment that deserve conservation for their scientific and
scenic values (Almeida, 1997; André et al., 2001). Between Esmoriz
and Furadouro there are hidden remains of a buried paleoforest of
Pinus sylvestris that represents the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)
along this coast (Granja, 1999; Groot & Granja, 1998).
The examples quoted are represented by complex associations
of active, barred or semi-enclosed lagoons or estuaries, spits, barrierislands, tidal-flats, marshes, mobile to vegetated dunes and salt- to
brackish-water swamps. Beyond their intrinsic value as records of
past environmental changes, the present-day state of preservation of
these features is sufficient to sustain their function as self-reorganizing physical barriers against flooding and efficient water purifiers.
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
River network, rañas and Appalachiantype landscapes of the Hesperic massif
(by P.P. Cunha)
The diverse and rich geomorphological heritage that can be observed
in the NW of Iberia provides evidence of a geological history of
international interest and importance. Erosion of the Hesperic Massif has resulted in a region of low relief called the Iberian Meseta,
surrounded by sedimentary basins. However, the denudation was not
continuous and involved a succession of cycles of erosion and
weathering that never resulted in perfect planation. Due to the different resistance to weathering of the basement, the narrow NW-SE
trending Palaeozoic synclines produced quartzitic ridges, whereas
the large anticlines, that consist of slates and metagreywakes, developed flat valleys (Appalachian-type relief; Martín-Serrano, 1988). In
west central Portugal, Albian sedimentary rocks onlapping these
quartzitic inselbergs suggest that the long period of general chemical
weathering occurred in Early to Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous times (Cunha & Pena dos Reis, 1995). Sedimentary and geomorphological evidence of extensive Palaeogene to middle Miocene
alluvial plain drainage systems contrasts with evidence of geographically restricted later Miocene-Zanclean alluvial fan sedimentation.
This change happened correlative with uplift events of the Portuguese Central Range and other higher relief areas (Cunha, 1992a).
Alluvial fan sedimentation culminates with poorly-sorted ochre conglomerates, containing large quartzitic boulders in proximal areas
fed by quartzitic relief areas, called rañas in the Portuguese and
Spanish Central Range piedmonts. Locally, fan sedimentation
passes laterally into fluvial deposits that document the first evolutionary stage of the present river networks draining to the Atlantic,
considered to be of Piacenzian age, predating the progressive fluvial
incision that produced the staircases of river terraces (Cunha et al.,
2005).
In working out this framework the geological diversity of Portugal has several advantages: 1) Sedimentary evidence of the progressive lateral and longitudinal facies evolution, from the interior
areas of the Massif to the near Atlantic ocean, a major external forcing (Cunha et al., 1993); 2) The best dating of the sedimentary
episode (allostratigraphic unit USB13-Piacenzian; Cunha, 1992b)
that contains the rañas, but also fluvial and estuarine/coastal marine
deposits with fossils providing precise biostratigraphy (Cachão &
Silva, 1990); 3) Evidence of late Cenozoic tectonic events that have
controlled the morphodynamic episodes (Cabral, 1995). The
allostratigraphic unit UBS13 display characteristics typical of
kaolinization and hydromorphism, reflecting a more humid and hot
climate and important Atlantic fluvial drainage (Cunha, 2000a).
Because of their geomorphological and sedimentary records,
rivers provide important archives of Earth history, particularly as
indicators of tectonic, climatic or eustatic events. The analysis of
long fluvial sequences, like the ones in which the rañas represent the
first stage of fluvial evolution, provides stratigraphic keys for understanding other Cenozoic sequences on land.
Tertiary basins of the western Iberian
margin (by P.P. Cunha and J. Pais)
A wide range of Cenozoic geological features occur in Portugal,
such as the Central Portuguese Cordillera (CPC) and Estremenho
Massif, with its intervening craton, and other significant topographic
features (e.g. the Western Mountains and the Arrábida chain), offshore margin-bounding structures, and sedimentary basins providing
evidence for the regional evolution. These basins vary considerably
in size and have formed under compressional and transpressional
tectonic regimes (Ribeiro et al., 1990; Alves et al., 2003), generated
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during the phases of compression between Iberia, Europe and
Africa.
The main Portuguese Tertiary basins (Mondego and Lower
Tagus) are located in the western border of the Iberian Massif and
separated by the CPC, a southwest-trending cordillera uplifted in the
late Cenozoic. Further inland, smaller Tertiary basins occur, both to
the north and south of the CPC. The Portuguese Tertiary basins have
marked tectonic, morphological and lithological differences. Their
depositional records include continental units grading westwards
into marine sediments that document the post-Mesozoic palaeogeographic, tectonic, climatic and eustatic events that occurred in western Iberia. Additionally, the limited vegetation, weathering and the
considerable fluvial incision observed onshore have produced good
exposures, the majority of which are located along the coast in
regions of present-day temperate climate.
Unconformity-bounded units have been recognised in the western Iberian margin (Cunha, 1992a, 1992b, 2000b; Pena dos Reis et
al., 1992) and high-resolution sequence stratigraphy is currently
being applied to the estuarine Miocene units of the Lower Tagus
Basin (Antunes et al., 2000; Legoinha, 2001). The distribution of
depositional facies, particularly alluvial deposits interfingering with
marginal marine siliciclastics, and the abundance of macro- and
microfaunas recorded in this basin demonstrate the exceptional
importance of the Lisbon-Set·bal Peninsula sediments for the study
of the Neogene evolution of Iberia. Correlations are based on several
taxonomic groups — foraminifera, ostracoda, dinoflagellates,
pollen, spores and mammals — coupled with isotopic dating and
palaeomagnetostratigraphy. Inland, continental successions clearly
reflect the influence of tectonics and climate on the stratigraphic
evolution of the basin.
The geological importance of the Tertiary basins of western
Iberia is underlined by its specific location on the Atlantic coast,
which allows the use of detailed biostratigraphic and sedimentary
information in the study of the major tectonic, climatic and eustatic
events affecting the North Atlantic margin.
Jurassic record in the Lusitanian Basin
(by M.H. Henriques, A.C. Azerêdo, L.V. Duarte,
M.M. Ramalho)
The Jurassic System in Portugal crops out in two basins, related with
the genesis of the Atlantic Ocean: Lusitanian (West Portugal) and
Algarve (South Portugal). The Jurassic record of the Lusitanian
Basin ranges in age from the Hettangian to the Tithonian, providing
a unique opportunity for onshore study of pre-, syn- and post-rifting
deposits. These are particularly well represented in several reference
sections, the most relevant of them located on the western Atlantic
coastline. At Cabo Mondego, the Lower-Upper Jurassic section
includes the Bajocian GSSP, the first stage boundary established for
the Jurassic System by the IUGS (Pavia & Enay, 1997; Fig.1). The
“golden spike” has been defined within a thick series of marine and
coastal sediments, cropping out in continuity along the coast. At
Peniche, the Lower Jurassic section includes the presently proposed
candidate for the Toarcian GSSP (Elmi et al., 1996; Fig. 2). Again,
the lower boundary of the Toarcian is located within a wide outcrop
showing continuous coastal exposure of outer marine sediments
(including turbidites), ranging in age from the Sinemurian to Aalenian. The Peniche and Cabo Mondego sections complement each
other, representing a complete stratigraphic succession for the
Lower and Middle Jurassic distal facies of the basin, and probably
are the best record worldwide of the history of the Proto-Atlantic
during those periods. In addition, other excellent sections on LowerMiddle Jurassic marine series are displayed at more inner locations
in the basin. Their rich palaeontological, stratigraphical and sedimentological information justifies the huge amount of scientific
work that has been published worldwide from the 19th century
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
onwards (references in Duarte, 1995, 2004; Henriques et al., 1994;
Henriques, 2004). The Middle Jurassic is also largely composed of
inner marine carbonate facies, in particular towards the east (Maciço
Calcário Estremenho, Serra de Sicó), where excellent exposures
exhibit varied litho- and biofacies. These provide detailed sedimentary, palaeogeographical, stratigraphical and micropalaeontological
data (Azerêdo, 1993; Soares et al., 1993; and references therein).
The Middle-Upper Jurassic transition records a major disconformity,
as in other Atlantic basins but with a few uncommon features
(Azerêdo et al., 2002). The Upper Jurassic is represented by all of its
stages, exhibiting a wide range of facies types in excellent outcrops
(e.g. Cabo Espichel, Sintra-Cascais, Torres Vedras-Montejunto,
Baleal-Nazaré, Cabo Mondego). These comprise alluvial, fluvial
and deltaic deposits; lignites; calcretes; lacustrine, restricted to
hypersaline lagoonal sediments; reefal to outer marine limestones;
and mass-flow deposits (e.g. Ramalho, 1971; Leinfelder & Wilson,
1998; and references therein).
Dinosaurs of western Iberia (by P. Dantas,
V. Santos, M. Cachão)
The Lusitanian basin (Western Iberia) contains exceptionally wellpreserved body fossils and ichnites of dinosaurs in its Mesozoic
units. Ostheological remains were mainly recovered from Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous formations (Pombal, Leiria, Alcobaça and
Batalha in the north and Alenquer and Torres Vedras at the south).
At Pombal remains of Theropoda and Sauropoda have been recovered (Sauvage, 1897-98; Pérez-Moreno et al., 1999) in particular
Allosaurus fragilis, an inter-continental species present in the Upper
Kimmeridgian–Lower Tithonian Alcobaça Formation (PérezMoreno et al., 1999, Dantas et al., 1999). Further South, at Leiria, the
Late Oxfordian-to Early Kimmeridgian Guimarota fossiliferous lignite mine (Mohr, 1989; Krebs, 1991; Helmdach, 1971, 1973–74),
provided Ornithischia (Hypsilophodontidae, Phyllodon; Thulborn,
1973); Sauropoda Brachiosauridae; Theropoda (Allosauridae,
Compsognathus, Tyrannosauridae, Troodontidae, cf. Archaeopterix;
Rauhut, 2000) and a remarkable diversity of microvertebrates in particular four orders of Mesozoic mammals: Docodonta, Multituberculata, Dryolestida and Zatheria (Martin & Krebs, 2000), together with
plant groups (Charophyta, Pteridophyta, Cycadales, Bennetitales,
Aruacariaceae, Cheirolepidiaceae and Cupressaceae) (Helmdach,
1971, 1973-74; Kühne, 1968; Krusat, 1980; Thulborn, 1973;
Weigert, 1995; Martin & Krebs, 2000). The rich delta facies of the
Lourinhã formation (Wilson et al., 1989) are particularly rich in
Theropoda, Sauropoda, stegossaurs, ankylosaurs and Ornithopoda
together with dinosaur eggs, gastroliths and footprints, as well as
other groups such as Charophyta, Mollusca, Ostracoda, fishes,
Quelonia, and Crocodyliformes (Lapparent & Zbyszewski, 1951,
1957; Werner, 1986; Mohr, 1989, Galton, 1991, 1994; Manuppella et
al., 1999; Dantas in Sanz, 2000). Recent discoveries include eggs with
theropod embryos (Mateus et al., 1998), and the sauropod Lourinhasaurus alenquerensis (Dantas et al., 1998). Ichnological remains are
found in several locations around Lisbon. At Pedra da Mua (Espichel
formation; Upper Jurassic) dozens of trackways preserved both manus
and pes morphologies, and reveals aspects of sauropod and theropod
behavior such as herd and limping movement (Lockley et al., 1994).
Pego Longo-Carenque (Belasian formation; Middle Cenomanian),
displays a long trackway of sub-circular footprints (Santos et al., 1992)
while at the Galinha quarry (Torres Novas), marly-limestone units of
the Dogger (Upper Bajocian -Lower Bathonian) revealed long sauropod trackways, with new manus and pes print morphologies for this
group (Santos, 2003).
September 2005
182
Ordovician fossils from Valongo
Anticline (by H. Couto)
The Ordovician rocks of the Valongo Anticline present important
and widely known fossil-rich layers. The fossil record shows a great
paleobiodiversity, evident by the presence of different forms of animal life, trace fossils and by the presence of seaweeds. The Valongo
Formation, one of the most fossiliferous lithostratigraphic units of
the Ordovician of Portugal, has become, for about a hundred years,
an object of particular interest to several palaeontologists. Delgado
(1908) was the first author to identify the fossils in this formation,
having classified more than a hundred and a half invertebrate taxa
(arthropods, molluscs, brachiopods, echinoderm, graptolites and
several groups of uncertain affinity).
Throughout the 20th century, apart from some references to
graptolites, brachiopods, cephalopods and echinoderms, the papers
about trilobites must be stressed, mainy because some species of
these marine arthropods were identified in Valongo for the very first
time (Delgado 1892, Curtis, 1961; Romano, 1980, 1982; Romano &
Henry, 1982, among others). Recent studies of rarer specimens
include those on nautiloids of the Trocholites genus (Babin et al.,
1996; Couto & Gutiérrez-Marco, 2000), cystoids (Couto & Gutiérrez-Marco, 1999), machaerids, a group of a very rare Palaeozoic
marine invertebrates, represented by the genus Plumulites already
identified by Delgado (Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 2000), ctenostomate
bryozoans in brachiopods's "Orthis" noctilio valves and rostroconch
molluscs (Couto & Gutiérrez-Marco, 2000). In relation to echinoderms, specimens of Homalozoa were identified (Gutiérrez-Marco &
Meléndez, 1987; Couto & Gutiérrez-Marco, 2000) and the presence
of an Asterozoa was pointed out for the first time (Couto & GutiérrezMarco, 2000). Finally the occurrence of phosphate levels with lingulid brachiopods in the Santa Justa Formation (Arenigian-Lanvirnian transition) (Couto, 1993, Couto et al., 1999) must be emphasized.
This occurrence allows correlation with similar levels in other parts
of the Iberian Peninsula, France, Morocco, Yugoslavia and northwest
of Argentina and also permits the reconstruction of the coastline at
the end of lower Ordovician.
This extremely important palaeontological heritage has been
preserved ever since the creation of the Palaeozoic Park of Valongo
in 1998, a cooperative venture between the Geology Department of
the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Oporto and the Municipality of Valongo (Couto & Dias, 1998, Couto et al., 2003).
Karst systems of Portugal (by J.A. Crispim)
Portuguese carbonate rocks support important karstlands, which
include ten protected areas of different status. In the Hercynian
chain, marbles and dolomitc limestone yielded residual hills of
Estremoz and Adiça (Alentejo), which are remnants of past morphoclimatic settings. Palaeokarst is represented by multiphase breccias
and mineralizations at the contact with carbonate rock. Three caves
are famous: Santo Adriço (Vimioso), with thick calcite deposit
mined for alabaster; Escoural (Montemor), with rock paintings and
engravings; and Algar de Santo António a rare karst window that
supplies water to Alandroal.
Tectonic inversion of Mesozoic basins yielded massifs where
karst processes developed karren fields, sinkholes and poljes (Martins, 1949; Feio, 1951; Cunha, 1990) like Pedra Furada (Sintra) and
Cerro da Cabeça megalapies (Olhão), and Minde (Alcanena) and
Nave do Barão (Loulé) poljes. Fórnea de Alvados is a splendid
reculée originated by headward erosion (Rodrigues, 1991).
Spectacular relict wave cut platforms and sea cliffs testify to the
advance of the sea during the late Pliocene transgression (Cape
Espichel surface, Adrião; Aljubarrota platform, Candeeiros) (Teixeira & Berthois, 1952; Pereira, 1989). Entrenched valleys formed
after sea retreat, provide insight into studies of prehistoric Man
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
(Mogo, Alcobaça; Nabão, Tomar; Lapedo, Leiria) (Natividade,
1901; Zilhão, 1987). Coastal karst is well developed on Miocene
outcropping in Algarve where current sea erosion opens circular pits
and caves filled up by Pleistocene sands (Algar Seco, Praia da
Rocha).
Caves, both coastal (Furninha, Peniche; Lapa de Santa Margarida, Arrábida) and inland (Almonda cave, Torres Novas) are
important archaeological and palaeontological sites (Ferreira, 1982).
The most extensive caves are in Estremenho massif (Almonda and
Moinhos Velhos are each about ten kilometres long) but Arrábida
contains perhaps the most richly decorated cave, with delicate crystals (Frade cave, Sesimbra) (Neca, 2000).
Diapiric, transtensive and transpressive tectonics associated
with uplift of limestone massifs gave rise to peculiar relief and structures, the most outstanding of which are Caldas da Rainha diapir,
Serra de Montejunto, Alvados tectonic block and Vale de Todos
composite fault structure (Zbyszewski, 1959; Crispim, 1993; Curtis,
1999).
Estremenho massif is the most extensive carbonate aquifer system in Portugal (Almeida et al., 2000) and Alviela spring (Fleury,
1940) is the most important as its flood discharge reaches about 30
m3/s and it has been exploited as the water supply for Lisbon since the
end of the 19th century. Alcabideque spring (Condeixa) has been
exploited since Roman times and is associated with Pleistocene tufa
deposits.
South Portuguese Palaeozoic marbles
(by P. Henriques and L. Lopes)
The Estremoz Anticline, located within the Ossa Morena Zone
(Estremoz–Barrancos sector), is a NW-SE structure measuring 42 x
8 km in which Cambrian (Carvalho et al., 1971) to (Upper?) Silurian–Devonian (Sarmiento et al., 2000) (although age determination is complicated by the lack of biostratigraphic and geochronological data) marbles with ornamental quality outcrop over 27km2
(Moreira & Vintém, 1997). It is the main centre for national marble
exploitation and has international relevance. A large number of quarries in the area provide unique geological windows that can reach
140 m in depth. The marbles preserve the effects of the Variscan
Orogeny and this can be observed in the quarries. Other Palaeozoic
marbles also outcrop in the Montemor–Ficalho (Ficalho–Moura,
Serpa, Trigaches, Viana-Alvito and Escoural) sector, which are less
relevant. In both sectors, the marbles occur in Volcano-Sedimentary
Complexes (Estremoz and Ficalho–Moura). Although local variations occur, a similar lithostratigraphic sequence essentially made up
of marbles, marble-schist, and intercalations of felsic and basic volcanic rocks is shown (Lopes, 2003).
The high quality, fine- to medium-grained, “Estremoz marbles”
show excellent mechanical-physical properties as well as aesthetic
beauty, as indicated by the prices they fetch and also by the large
volumes of rock quarried, around 370 kt in 2000, and places Portugal at the forefront of world marble production. Colours vary from
white to cream, pink, grey or black and streaks with any combination
of these colours are possible. The types of pink marble are internationally coveted because of their quality and beauty. Locally, highquality, white or cream-coloured blocks are also used in statue manufacture.
In recent decades, several exploration studies have been undertaken to evaluate this resource (Reynaud & Vintém, 1994; IGM et
al., 2000). Considering the interaction between mining and environment, the application of methodologies that permit the proficient
land use planning of this area have been studied, which will lead to
an efficient global land management (Falé et al., 2004).
These marbles have been quarried since the Romans through the
middle ages. From the 15th Century they were transported by Portuguese explorers to Africa, India and Brazil. They have, since then,
been sought after for ornamental purposes and appear inlaid with varSeptember 2005
183
ious polychromatic associations in several national and international
monuments, some of which have been classified as World Heritage
Sites by UNESCO (Milheiro, 2003). Today the marble industry has
leapt forward and these are now exported worldwide.
The Azores Archipelago in the AmericaEurasia-Africa triple junction
ii) At a regional level, conditions have been developed to foster
dialogue with Spanish colleagues in order to create Iberian frameworks;
iii) At an international level, it is now possible to integrate Portuguese geosites in the global inventories promoted by IUGS,
UNESCO, and ProGEO.
To achieve these results, future work should focus on:
i) Identification, characterisation and quantification of geosites
representative of each framework;
ii) Proposal of management plans for selected geosites ensuring
their conservation.
(by J. Madeira)
The Azores archipelago (a Portuguese Autonomous Region) is
located on the triple junction between the American, Eurasian and
African plates (Laughton & Whitmarsh, 1974). The intervening
plate boundaries are the Mid-Atlantic Rift (MAR), separating the
American plate from the Eurasian and African plates, and the
Azores-Gibraltar Fault Zone (AGFZ), bounding the latter two plates.
In the Azores area, the MAR trends N-S to N20E and is divided by
transform faults into seven short segments (Luis et al., 1994). The
western AGFZ segment, in the Azores region, is oblique to the
spreading direction allowing magmatic intrusion along faults, feeding the volcanism that built the islands (Lourenço et al., 1998). Tectonic and volcanic activities are well displayed in the geomorphology of the islands.
Several active volcanoes, some of which emerge as islands, are
responsible for 27 eruptions since early 15th century (Zbyszewski,
1963; Weston, 1963/64, Queiroz et al., 1995, Madeira & Brum da
Silveira, 2003).
Earthquakes reaching magnitude 7 that caused >6,000 deaths
and well-developed fault scarps represent neotectonic activity
(Madeira & Ribeiro, 1990; Madeira & Brum da Silveira, 2003).
Many features in the Azores may be considered candidates to
geosite classification. These include volcanic structures (historical
eruption centres and products, hydrothermal fields, calderas, maars,
hawaiian/strombolian, surtseyan and plinian cones, trachyte domes
and coulées, pillow lava outcrops, volcanic caves, prismatic jointed
outcrops, pyroclastic deposit exposures), tectonic structures (fault
scarps, sag ponds), sedimentary deposits (fossiliferous marine
deposits of Miocene to Quaternary age, flood deposits, lahars), and
littoral features (e.g. littoral platforms of volcanic or landslide origin
— fajãs). As an example, in the island of Santa Maria one site has
recently been classified as a Natural Monument; it comprises fossiliferous limestones dating from the Miocene/Pliocene boundary,
overlain by pillow lavas, associated with an ancient limestone quarry
and lime-kiln (Cachão et al., 2003).
Some offshore sites are also worth mentioning, such as the
Lucky Strike and Menez Gwen submarine hydrothermal fields classified as Deep Sea Marine Protected Areas by the Regional Government, and the D. João de Castro submarine volcano that erupted in
1720 and is presently at a depth of 10 m.
Thus, the Azores may be considered a natural laboratory of
international relevance with regard to plate tectonics, active volcanism and neotectonics. The archipelago displays varied and abundant
geological features of scientific, educational and socio-cultural interest, both on the islands and at sea.
Final considerations
The present attempt to define a framework with international relevance constitutes the first contribution for the systematisation of the
geological heritage knowledge in Portugal. The application of the
ProGEO methodology has resulted in the creation of fourteen frameworks, established by consensus among the Portuguese geological
community. Following are the three key outcomes of this work:
i) At a national level, the most important geosites are identified,
indicating where geoconservation efforts should be prioritised
through scientific justification;
Episodes, Vol. 28, no. 3
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Dr William Wimbledon for his contribution to the manuscript.
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