VÂNIA DE BRITO SANGUINETTI FERREIRA
TOWARDS AN ANALYSIS OF ERRORS MADE BY
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN THE TRANSLATION OF
ENGLISH NOMINAL GROUPS, AND THE EFFECT ON
READING COMPREHENSION.
Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de
Mestre, Área de Concentração: Língua
Inglesa, do Curso de Pós-Graduação em
Letras. Setor de Ciências Humanas, Letras
e Artes da Universidade Federal do
Paraná.
CURITIBA
1981
PROFESSOR
Doutor
EURICO
Titular
Geral
ORIENTADOR
de
da
Federal
BACK,
Lingüística
Universidade
do
Parana.
ACKNOWLEGMENTS
It
our
is
a pleasure
debt
guidance
Our
to
all
our
during
special
to m a k e
ii i
to
those
this
to
.
/
acknowledge
tutor
for
this
research.
gratitude
who
work
have
also
his
goes
contributed
possible.
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES
v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
vi
RESUMO
. .
Vi i
ABSTRACT
viii
INTRODUCTION
.. .
1-
1. SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH NOMINAL GROUPS
3. READING COMPREHENSION
7-27
...
2. RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH TO LOCAL SITUATION
:. . .
.
28- 32
33- 55
3.1. Some lines of thought
3.2. The psychological
6
33- 44
processes of
receptive
behaviour
44- 51
4. THE VALUE OF TRANSLATION AS A TESTING INSTRUMENT...
56- 61
5. RESEARCH UNDERTAKEN
62-112
5.1. Procedure
62- 66
5.2. Students and texts applied
66- 71
5.3. Specification of errors
72- 86
5.4. The types of ngps which have been disregraded.
86- 87
5.5. Omissions
87- 91
in the translations of n^ps
5.6. Statistical
analysis of wbt and i.rg errors
...
01-107
CONCLUSION
113-118
RECOMMENDATIONS
119-124
REFERENCES
125-130
APPENDIX
1
Texts
APPENDIX
2
Errors
APPENDIX
3 ... Statistical
hypotheses, tests and
iv
calculations
LIST or T A B L E S
Table
Page
1
Omissions, wbt/irg errors and other types of errors
2
Total
of wbt and i rg errors and other types
89
of
errors in the n o n - s p e c i f i c and specific texts
3
Error rate per s t u d e n t , in each npg, in the
92
non-
specific texts
4
95
Error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, in the
specific texts
5
-
The length of the ngps, the number of w b t and i rg
errors, and the error rate per s t u d e n t , in each
in the non-specific
-6
ngp,
texts
99
The length of the ngps, the number of w b t and i rg
errors, and the error rate per s t u d e n t , in each
in the specific texts t r a n s l a t e d by the
Group
7
ngp,
Physics
.
101
The length of the ngps, the number of w b t and i rg
errors and the error rate per s t u d e n t , in each
in the specific texts t r a n s l a t e d by the
ngp,
Nursing
Group
8
102
Correlation rate of wb t and i rg errors
specific texts
9
Correlation
in the
non-
.
rate of w b t and i rg errors
103
in the
s p e c i f i c texts t r a n s l a t e d by the Physics Group
10
96
Correlation rate of w b t and i rg errors
104
....
105
in the
specific texts translated by the Nursing Group
V
....
LIST OF
DLEM
-
D e p a r t m e n t of Modern Foreign Languages (Departamento de
Letras Estrangeiras
EL I
-
ABBREVIATIONS
English Language
undergraduate
Modernas).
I - course to be taken by all
students at the
UFPB.
CIn9lës
ESP
-
English for Specific Purposes
irg
-
inadequate insertion of a ranksFiifted
std
-
(number of)
TIC
-
the first n o n - s p e c i f i c
Instrumental).
group.
students.
text applied to the Nursing
and
the Physics Groups of s t u d e n t s .
T2C
-
the second n o n - s p e c i f i c
text applied to the
and the Physics Groups of
T()N
-
students
specific text applied to the Nursing Group. The
inserted between T and N indicates its order
presentation
T()P
-
-
Federal
-
University of Paraíba
word-bound
number
its order of
in class.
ParaTba)'.
wbt
of
specific text applied to the Physics Group. The
presentation
number
in class.
inserted between T and P indicates
UFPB
Nursing
translation.
vi
(Universidade
Federal
da
RESUMO
Esta dissertação
tem como objetivo d e m o n s t r a r
interpretação de grupos nominais em inglês constitui
ficuldades encontradas
versidade Federal
pelos alunos de Língua
que
a
uma das di_
Inglesa
I da
Unj_
da Paraíba no estudo de textos e s c r i t o s em i_n
gles.
A experiência
foi realizada com dois grupos de alunos,
sendo o primeiro da area de Saude e o segundo da área de
logia. Foram utilizadas
traduções
de textos específicos
Tecn£
e
não-
especfficos a essas duas a r e a s , a fim de se d i a g n o s t i c a r a
fluencia da seqüência
dos e l e m e n t o s e s t r u t u r a i s
- m
iji
(modifiers^
e h (headword) - dos grupos nominais de dois e de mais de
dois
vocábulos em inglês, sobre seus e q u i v a l e n t e s em português e sua
conseqüente
interferência
na
compreensão.
Esperava-se que o c o n h e c i m e n t o
do assunto tratado
textos e o numero de vocábulos f o r m a d o r e s
dos grupos
nominais em
inglês pudessem ser obstáculos á produção de grupos nominais
equivalentes em português onde a i n f l u ê n c i a
nos
'
dessa seqüência
es^
tivesse refletida. Os resultados o b t i d o s r e v e l a r a m que essa
iji
fluencia persistiu
nos dois tipos de. t e x t o s , tanto nos
específj_
cos quanto naqueles n a o - e s p e c í f i c o s as areas acadêmicas
desses
alunos, persistindo
de dois
também em grupos
nominais de dois e de mais
vocábulos.
Infere-se que o c o n h e c i m e n t o do a s s u n t o e o numero de
vocábulos formadores dos grupos
nominais
cientes para o b s t a c u l a r a i n t e r f e r ê n c i a
tos estruturais
to a compreensão
dos grupos
dos textos
não foram fatores sufi_
da s e q ü ê n c i a dos elemeji
nominais em inglês no que diz respej^
estudados.
vii
ABSTRACT
This d i s s e r t a t i o n aims at giving evidence of the fact
that the interpretation of nominal
groups
in English texts
constituted an area of difficulty faced by students
English Language
I Course at the
has
attending
UFPB.
The e x p e r i m e n t involved two groups of s t u d e n t s , one of
which belonged to the Health Sciences a r e a , and the other
the Technology area. T r a n s l a t i o n s
of texts related to
students' academic . fi elds as well
to
those
as texts w h i c h were not linked
to their major disciplines were employed as a means of
the influence of the sequence of the structural
m (modi fi ers) and h (headword) - in English
diagnosing
elements - namely,
nominal
groups,
formed by two and more than two w o r d s , on their equivalents
Portuguese, and its c o n s e q u e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h
in
comprehension.
It was expected that the k n o w l e d g e of the
subjects
discussed in those texts and the number of words forming a
nominal
group m i g h t be obstacles
Portuguese nominal
to the r e n d i t i o n of
groups in w h i c h the influence of that
was reflected. H o w e v e r , that i n f l u e n c e was detected
which were specific to students' a c a d e m i c fields
the non-specific
equivalent
in the
as well
ones, and it also p e r s i s t e d in nominal
formed by two and more
sequence
texts
as in
groups
than two w o r d s .
The results of the e x p e r i m e n t have shown that the.
knowledge of the subjects d i s c u s s e d in both types of texts and
the length of the English nominal
were not decisive factors
groups
inserted in those
in the overcoming
of the
posed by that influence on the c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the
studied.
VIU
texts
difficulties
texts
INTRODUCTION
Since 1970 the Federal
University
offering English courses for n o n - h u m a n i t i e s
inclusion of these courses
besides
o f Paraíba has been
students.
The
in other academic fields of
studies,
the ones offered to Letras s t u d e n t s , was due to the
urgent needs imposed by the number of foreign
textbooks,
periodicals, and reference books to be c o n s u l t e d by
undergraduate
students.
The teachers
in charge of this new aspect of the
teaching of E n g l i s h , in this case as an a u x i l i a r y subject
other d i s c i p l i n e s , have been facing some d i f f i c u l t i e s
to
in the
preparation of a syllabus whose basic c o n d i t i o n m i g h t m e e t the
students' needs. These courses are nowadays called
Language
I, and aim at an e f f i c i e n t and o b j e c t i v e
English
performance
on the students' part so that their studies and research can be
carried out
successfully.
The aim of this work is to test the hypothesis
undergraduate
students at the Federal
difficulty w i t h English nominal
with comprehension
groups w h i c h , in turn,
have
interfere
groups is a term
l i n g u i s t i s , notably M . A . K . Halliday
J.McH. Sinclair whose terminology
analysis will
U n i v e r s i t y of Paraíba
of w r i t t e n texts. Nominal
employed by the Systemic
that
and system.of
be briefly s u m m a r i z e d
and
grammatical
in the next c h a p t e r .
This
type of difficulty was d e t e c t e d when s t u d e n t s were asked to
translate texts from English into P o r t u g u e s e .
It should be
emphasized that we are aware that our s t u d e n t s are not
to be professional
t r a n s l a t o r s ; they are r e q u i r e d to
or to interpret the text to be studied
trained
translate,
in c l a s s , so that
the
teacher can verify the existence of any area of
linguistic
difficulty; the translation of texts gives the teacher
chance to assess the students' ahility
to decode the
the
information
transmitted in the w r i t t e n m e d i u m . This view will be defended
at
greater length in chapter 4.
The e x p e r i m e n t involved the study and translation
twenty-eight texts, two of them dealing w i t h general
and the
other twenty-six with specific subjects. The general
texts,
hereafter referred to as TC, or n o n - s p e c i f i c
to be a d m i n i s t e r e d
to the Medical
ones, were the first
to two groups of s t u d e n t s ; one group
S c h o o l ; that was the Nursing Group. The
group w a s composed of Physics s t u d e n t s . The purpose of
with groups of d i f f e r e n t a c a d e m i c areas was to detect
statistical
each nominal
of
belonged
other
dealing
significant
differences b e t w e e n the error rate per s t u d e n t , in
group, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c texts and in the
specific
ones.
The choice of these two groups of students,
belonging
to different areas of studies aimed at verifying w h e t h e r
both shared the sar.ie kind of l i n g u i s t i c d i f f i c u l t i e s
related to their specific
they
in texts
areas.
The Nursing Group t r a n s l a t e d fourteen specific
and the Physics Group twelve s p e c i f i c ones; there were
eight students in the former group and t w e n t y - f o u r
one. Both groups had E n g l i s h classes from Monday
texts,
thirty-
in the
latter
to Friday;
class lasted fifty m i n u t e s . Most of the students were
each
taking
their first semester at the u n i v e r s i t y ; only two, in the
Nursing
Group, were seniors but this fact did not alter the validity
our research. The total
of newly a d m i t t e d students who
formed
of
both groups was 60; these 60 students and the two seniors
together, since they were all obliged to take the
Language I Course as one of their c o m p u l s o r y
English
disciplines.
Students in b o t h groups were a b o u t the same age
their social, cultural
and economical
worked
b a c k g r o u n d has
and
not
»
constituted one of the important aspects to be taken, into
consideration
of students
in our r e s e a r c h ; we have chosen these two
groups
in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the common process of e n r o l m e n t
at the UFPB; this choice has, t h e r e f o r e , been a random
as to students' social, cultural
and e c o n o m i c
selection
background.
• The texts were d i s t r i b u t e d at the beginning
of the
class; then, after a short period of r e a d i n g , either s i l e n t or
not, the students were asked to s t a r t - t h e i r t r a n s l a t i o n s ;
use of a bilingual
dictionary was permitted. To d i s c o v e r
real difficulties w h i c h m i g h t appear in the texts to be
the
the
translated,
any type of c o m m e n t , either on v o c a b u l a r y or s y n t a x , was made
after all the students had finished their t r a n s l a t i o n s .
the usual
procedure
make some general
However,
in this course is to read the text f i r s t ,
comments on points w h i c h the teacher tfiinks are
d i f f i c u l t , and then the students do the exercises
the t r a n s l a t i o n of the
required
and
text.
The t r a n s l a t i o n s . w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e
the corpus of this
research w e r e rendered during the f i r s t semester of 19-79.
presence of all the students in class was c o n s t a n t . The
The
ones
who dropped out totalled four, and they did so at the very
beginning
of the course. They r e n d e r e d two t r a n s l a t i o n s , at m o s t ,
and these have not been included in the corpus to f a c i l i t a t e
statistics tests w h i c h would be used for the analysis of
the
errors.
4
Some aspects need to he e m p h a s i z e d :
1) the
students
with whom we have worked had just left high s c h o o l , with
exceptions m e n t i o n e d above;
the
2\ the types of texts studied
Class and the procedures followed in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
texts were a novelty for the s t u d e n t s ; we know, from
that the teaching
techniques and the t r a n s l a t i o n of
texts a r e aspects
peculiar to the English Language
the UFPB, and not employed in high-school
in
of the .
experience,
technical
I Course at
English courses
in
Paraíba. A l t h o u g h t r a n s l a t i o n s are usually avoided as a current
activity
in high s c h o o l , s t u d e n t s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , tend to
translate m e n t a l l y ; even so, we are e n t i t l e d to say
translation as a decoding
they are not familiar;
process
that
is a new technique w i t h which
3] the subjects -deal t .with in all
t w e n t y - e i g h t texts w e r e s u p p o s e d to be f a m i l i a r to the
the D e p a r t m e n t of M o d e r n Foreign L a n g u a g e s
establishes
(_D!-EM)
the
students;
at
UFPB
the texts, assuming that the c o n t e n t of some of them
has been studied in high school
subjects which are included
and that m o s t of them deal
in the u n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m m e of each
group of students'
specific area. For i n s t a n c e , if the
Group has to study
the r e s p i r a t o r y
is likely to be chosen.
with
Nursing
s y s t e m , a text a b o u t
bronchitis
In fact, the DLEM has tried to work
with
topics already seen by s t u d e n t s , or the ones w h i c h are to be seen
in the programme d e s i g n a t e d
to their s p e c i f i c areas;
4)
the main c o n d i t i o n for a s t u d e n t to sit for a u n i v e r s i t y
e x a m i n a t i o n is to have f i n i s h e d his high-school
the students in the Nursing
considered
since
entrance
c o u r s e , m o s t of
Group and the Physics one are
'false beginners ' by w h i c h we mean those students who
have been exposed
to English grammatical
great number of lexical
c o n s t r u c t i o n s , and a
items at high-school
level, however weak
5
their control
of them might be. They form the ideal
students who "still permit us to estimate
performance when faced with technical
their
the core of the
linguistic
texts; the complexity
the code as the vehicle for the i n f o r m a t i o n
text makes
types of
transmitted
in the
question.
Our experience as teachers
of English enables LIS to
recognize and admit the existence of othpr d e f i c i e n c i e s
interfere with c o m p r e h e n s i o n ; these may give rise to
studies and research.
which
further
It is hardly likely that the nominal
groups
constitute the only area of d i f f i c u l t y for EL I students.
the detection of one of the d i f f i c u l t i e s
c o m p r e h e n s i o n of technical
English Language
texts as they are a d m i n i s t e r e d in the
Our objectives aim at v e r i f y i n g :
difficulty
a) the e x t e n t
texts; the
translation errors and i n a d e q u a t e
rankshifted groups
concern.
insertions
groups.3
b) whether
average of error rates per s t u d e n t , in each nominal
texts is equal
groups.
errors
the
g r o u p , in
g r o u p , in the
c) w h e t h e r the length of the nominal
a factor of difficulty
of
or d i f f e r e n t from the average
error rates per student, in each nominal
texts;
incidence
is to be compared w i t h other types of
which have also been made in nominal
the n o n - s p e c i f i c
to
groups a c t u a l l y comprise an area of
in the t r a n s l a t i o n of technical
of w o r d - b o u n d
However,
which may block
I Course at the UFPB is our m a i n
which the English nominal
of
in the translations
groups
of those
of
specific
constitutes
nominal
6
NOTE
7
Word-bound
translation errors - wbt - are those
from the translation of every w o r d in a nominal
sequence as the English exponents.
Inadequate
rankshifted group - i rg - refer to the failure
pre-headword adjectives
group in the
insertions
1.
i
of a
to c o n v e r t
in English into p o s t - h e a d w o r d
in Portuguese. See chapter
resulting
phrases
same
CHAPTER 1
SYSTEMIC
ANALYSIS
OF
ENGLISH
NOMINAL
In considering' the translations
GROUPS
rendered by the
and Physics Groups we noticed the high incidence
Nursing
of errors
occurred mainly in English ngps made up of two or more
The types of words
this
which
words.
forming the ngps are d e s c r i b e d later,
in
chapter.
The m o s t common errors
not able to identify
d e m o n s t r a t e d that students
the structural
elements
fact showed the need for a theoretical
mpdel
were
of a ngp.
This
against w h i c h
difficu11ies~ found "in the t r e a t m e n t of English ngps could
considered with a view to facilitating
problems
involved in the decoding
Besides
the Systemic- 2
process
analysis
m i g h t have been used as theoretical
causes and explanations
2
of those
for the errors
of ngps s other
s t u d e n t s , b r i e f l y , some Systemic
which systemicists work
the way each grammatical
the
and relative
models
possible
simplicity
view
for
notions
concerning
is the
the parts
our
the way by
fit
together
' w h o l e 1 ; it seemed
item has been a r r a n g e d in a scale
five ranks has been quite easily g r a s p e d by our s t u d e n t s .
brief outline
the
tried to transmit to
and describe how
in a w h o l e , in that the sentence
of
in ngps m i g h t be
offers a clear and practical
teaching purposes. We have already
be
ngps.
bases on which
clarified. However, in its consistency
the S y s t e m i c model
the e x p l a n a t i o n
the
2
that
of
^
follows.
Sinclair arranges his units of d e s c r i p t i o n
rankscale, that is, a scale of five ranks
m o v e m e n t from the sentence
in which
into
a
a downward
to s m a l l e r units may take place.
A
8
sentence
is thus made
up of one or m o r e
made up of one or more
g r o u p s ; a group
clauses; a clause
of one
a w o r d is made up of one or m o r e m o r p h e m e s .
a clause s t r u c t u r e
functioning within
that d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t . This
the s t r u c t u r a l
elements
or more w o r d s
and
The p o s s i b i l i t y
of
a group is p e r m i t t e d
is c a l l e d
GIRL WHO CAME TO D I N N E R LAST N I G H T
is
thus,
THE
is a ngp w h e r e we can
find
of a c l a u s e
rankshift;
by
- W H O CAME TO
DINNER
LAST
NIGHT.
Each rank
s y s t e m and
comprises
categories:
each w o r d , or e a c h c l a u s e ,
andexternal
relations;
and an a d j u n c t
(A); the c l a u s e
has
(P) o b j e c t
as a w h o l e
(0) c o m p l e m e n t
forms
are
the s t r u c t u r a l
c l a u s e . A g r o u p 4 m a y c o n s i s t of three e l e m e n t s :
which
the
(q); the
representation
of a ngp m i g h t be (m) h ( q ) ; the p a r e n t h e s e s
enclosed elements
are
b) S y s t e m :
"because
important
the d i s t i n c t i o n s
systemic contrast.
one h e a d w o r d
of the
structure
that
the
category
of m e a n i n g
If we say
that
arise
'verbs
from
can
informally
be
about
5
voice." .
grammar, system
constitutes
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the n u m b e r of p o s s i b i l i t i e s
m u s t be m a d e .
(h)
modifiers
indicate
or p a s s i v e ' we are. t a l k i n g
the s y s t e m of
In S y s t e m i c
of. 5
optional.
it. is the m o s t
active
or
complements,
parts
is c o m p u l s o r y , a n d , in the case of a n g p , the
(m) and the q u a l i f i e r s
(C)
a sentence
part of a s e n t e n c e . The s u b j e c t , the p r e d i c a t o r ,
and the a d j u n c t s
its
in a c l a u s e , for i n s t a n c e , we
may find a s u b j e c t (S) p r e d i c a t o r
the o b j e c t s
structure,
class.
a) S t r u c t u r e :
internal
a set of three
In a ngp s i n g u l a r and plural
a category
where
may be
a
choice '
the terms
of
a system in the study of ngps. Sinclair also admits
that
"a grammar is a very complicated network
systems which cut each other in many
ways"
of
different
6
but the symbols he uses to follow the movement along
complicated network of systems are very much
this
simplified.
c) Class: this category is related to each element of
structure considered as exponents. A word may be the exponent
of one of the terms in a systemic choice; thus, the
exponent
of a ngp may be a common noun, a class which can be
considered
as indefinitely
large. In the ngp THE MAN we have THE, which
is the (m) element in the structure of the ngp THE MAN, and
also one exponent of the class of deictics. MAN is the headword
'noun 1 .
of the ngp THE MAN, and the exponent of the class
Komi nal Group Structure
A ngp has three elements: (m)_ h (.q).; but only the
headword h, is compulsory; moreover, a single w o r d may be
exponent of a ngp. In HE CAME THEN we have three groups:
the exponent of a ngp; CAME, the exponent of a verbal
and THEN, the exponent of an adverbial
the
HE,
group;
group.
A ngp may operate as the exponent of the
structural
«
elements of a clause; in the analysis of the errors made
ngps we did not take
as exponents
into account the role that the ngps
of the different elements of the clause
An illustration of some ngps as constituents
of some
in
played
structure.
structural
elements of a clause may be suitable for the purpose of this,
work.
In JOHN STAYED FIVE MINUTES
the underlined parts
make
10
up a ngp operating
at A, that is to say, as an a d j u n c t ;
in
THE MAN CAME, THE MAN is operating at S, as s u b j e c t ; in I LIKE
THE MAN, it is operating
as an o b j e c t , at 0; in I ASKED
MAN TO GO is operates at o/s; sometimes
a ngp operates
THE
at
C,
as in HE WENT AWAY A HAPPY MAN. ?
Some ngps can also be included in some
groups; Sinclair says
that
"the prepositional
preposition
group is a c o m b i n a t i o n of
and a nominal
make up one single
group which
adjunct".
makes between adverbial
'
"It is useful
adverbs'
to complete
the s t r u c t u r e "
We intend to take this ngp which
groups
does
that
constituted an area of difficulty
as
requiring a nominal
group
9
is used to characterize
group into a c c o u n t if, and only
interest us in our analysis.
Sinclair
to think of prepositions
'transitive
had any difficulty
that
groups and prepositional
not alter the results of our w o r k ; he says
if, it
in the translations
which
If, for i n s t a n c e , the students
in translating
HE JUMPED
OFF THE HIGH
what Sinclair defines
into
mentioned
as r a n k s h i f t ; for i n s t a n c e , a nominal
group may play a part in the s t r u c t u r e of a n o t h e r nominal
book was on the table'
be f i n e ' ,
group.
'The boy's' comes at the
of the group and is called a m o d i f i e r
th i s size will
GARDEN
10
On the second page of this chapter we have
beginning
had
since the problem which we are i n t e r e s t e d in is
characterized in THE HIGH GARDEN WALL.
'The boy's
a
has
WALL, the underlined part of this sentence w o u l d be taken
consideration
a
together
8
For the purpose of this w o r k , the distinction
prepositional
prepositional
'this size' comes
(m) . In .'A hat
at the e n d and
is
11
called a qualifier
(q).
11
M o r e o v e r , in
'The car
I had
last
winter...'
"I had last
winter*
identification
is part
of
the
of the car, and it cannot be
safely m i s s e d out. T h a t is the reason why we
label
it (q) for qualifier in the
group, and not a separate clause
structure.
looks
It is a stretch
nominal
in sentence
of language
which
like a c l a u s e , but behaves like a word;
internally
it is a clause, e x t e r n a l l y
word. Such a structure
it is a
is called a r a n k s h i f t e d
s t r u c t u r e , in this case a r a n k s h i f t e d clause. " 1 2
So far we have m e n t i o n e d
few examples where
groups and a rankshifted clause have o c c u r r e d . This
rankshift is one of the important aspects
errors made in nominal
rankshifted
concept
in our analysis
groups since the m i s u s e of the
certain nominal
into Portuguese. For example, C a t f o r d , 2 3
groups
grammar for his linguistic theory of t r a n s l a t i o n ,
faced in
from
who adopts
English
the
systemic
considers
'category-shift' any changes of s t r u c t u r e , of c l a s s e s , of
in a system which may occur between the s o u r c e - 1 a n g u a g e
in this case) and the t a r g e t - l a n g u a g e
In'translating
(Portuguese,in
'The thin, flexibls drum' a nominal
English whose headword is
'drum' and
group
requires; indeed, in the English nominal
group
into
case).
in
'the thin, f l e x i b l e '
translation
terms
(English,
this
m o d i f i e r s , our students find it d i f f i c u l t to shift the
(m) h into h (q) as the e q u i v a l e n t
of
process
of rankshift has proved to be one of the difficulties
the process of translating
of
are
structure
Portuguese
'The thi n, flexible
drum' we have the m m m h structure w h i c h w o u l d be shifted to the
Portuguese m h q q s t r u c t u r e ,
'jd tfmpano del gado e f 1 exTve 1 ' .
m
The insertion of a nominal
h
q
group within a n o t h e r nominal
q
group
14
12
in the trans 1 a ti on. from English
problems.
into Portuguese
caused
The translation of THE LYMPH DRAINAGE SYSTEM
m
structural
m h [qj
has
m
m
whose
h
elements are m m m h, may have the structural
15
in its e q u i v a l e n t Portuguese translation
elements
'o sistema
m
de drenagem 1 i nfati ca'.
The element q has
h
'de drenagem
[q]
1 i nfãti ca '
h
its exponents, in Portuguese
q
preceded by the Portuguese
preposition
'de'; thus, the translation of the English ngp
'THE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
qualifier
Portuguese,
headword and
gives rise to a prepositional
'de drenagem l i n g ã t i c a ' , where
'linfática'
LYMPH
'drenagem'
in
is
the
is a q u a l i f i e r .
The insertion of a ngp w i t h or w i t h o u t
preposition
within another ngp is said to be perfectly common in
English.^6
Another problem faced by m o s t of our students
also
concerns r a n k s h i f t ; they do not know that a m o d i f i e r may
have
a clause as its e x p o n e n t in P o r t u g u e s e . The t r a n s l a t i o n
of
PREDISPOSING
FACTORS (T8N) m i g h t have as its
Portuguese
equivalent a rankshifted clause operating at q; the
elements of the English ngp a>"e m h P R E D I S P O S I N G
FACTORS,
m
'fatores que
also replace
Portuguese,
'que predispõem'
elements h
prédis poem* ;
h
while,
h
in Portuguese, we m i g h t have the structural
and its exponents may be
structural
[q"]
17
we m i g h t
[[q]
by a o n e - w o r d e q u i v a l e n t
'predisponentes'; h o w e v e r , the results
translation of this English ngp p r e s e n t e d neither
as an e q u i v a l e n t of the adjective
PREDISPOSING
as a r a n k s h i f t e d clause operating at q.
nor
in
in the
'predisponentes'
'que predispõem'
.
We have c o n c e n t r a t e d
our work
the translation of the exponents
our analysis
of errors
m o d i f i e r s , assuming
on the. problems
of (m)_ and h; we have
to the translation
that the t r a n s l a t i o n
posed by
restricted
of headwords
of exponents
and
their
operating
at (q) in English ngps are not included in the m o s t common
faced by the students of the two groups of Nursing and
Sinclair and Catford have p r e s e n t e d the
classes that can operate at (m).
18
problems
Physics.
different
T h a t is to say, at (m) we
- have a system which "divides up the items
several moves
13
it operates
on, so
in delicacy a class may be the r e s u l t o f
after
several
subdivisions."19
The scale of delicacy
distinctions
in meaning
concerns
the fineness
r e p r e s e n t e d by structural
of the
elements.
Catford states :
"... if we are going to attribute
at all
to English nominal
any
structure
groups we m u s t set up
three elements: H (head), M (modifier) and Q
(qualifier). Our least delicate des cripti on * of
English Ngp structure is thus (M...N) H
(Q...N),
which means that one e l e m e n t , H, is always
p r e s e n t , and this may be preceded and/or
by one or more e l e m e n t M or Q. Thus we
say, at a primary
followed
should
degree of d e l i c a c y , that the
groups:
Old/men
These Three
old/men
have the structure MH and M M M H. By taking a
further step down the delicacy
different classes
(deictic)
structure
of the e l e m e n t M - namely d
o (numerative)
can say that
'These three
e (epithet), and we
old/men' has
the
d o e H, in which d o e is a more
delicate s t a t e m e n t of structure
Sinclair expands
scale we recognize
than M M W . " 2 0
the explana ti on of this del i cacy
scale
14
and includes
the element n which is the element at (m)
stands for a noun modifying
another. Thus, the elements
may operate at (m) are d, o, e and n; here are some
of English nominal
and h.
that
that
examples
groups with d, o, e and n operating at (m)
21
dh
oh
eh
nh
1. the man
1. two men
1. good food
1. copper kettles
2. this chap
2. many people
2. fine old
2. Morris cars
buildings
3. every single
3. fish soup
book
4. his own car
4. jute warehouse
5. all those
5. cotton frock
-
people
6. a car
6. noun modifier
This table shows the types of w o r d - c l a s s e s which operate
at:
d - deictics and their s u b m o d i f i e r s , such as
'single',
'own';
the use of 'all' e m p h a s i z e s the specific
reference
of the
deictic used; Sinclair says that
specific deictics, o n l y . 2 2
o - numerals with countable
'all' can precedes
It is c o n s i d e r e d a
nouns as
the
pre-deictic,22
headwords,
e - a d j e c t i v e s , or e p i t h e t s . They can be s u b m o d i f i e d by words
such as
degree
'very',
'more' and
'most' w h i c h
"add the notion
to the d e s c r i p t i o n of the-adjecti ves. " 2 4
This
of
notion
of degree added to the d e s c r i p t i o n of the a d j e c t i v e s may be
conveyed by means of an i n f l e c t i o n , such as in
shoes' and
'the nicest shoes' ; besides
the
'some
nicer
submodifiers
which add the notion of d e g r e e , some o t h e r s , such as
'a most'
15
'moderately',
'really',
'quite',
convey a "tempering m e a n i n g " . 2 5
'awfully', etc. are said to
Operating at e a class
adjectives whose distinctive w o r d - s t r u c t u r e
addition of suffixes such as:
introduced
together with
usually
of
lies in the
- a l , - e n , - i c , etc. is also
the adjectives which
n - nouns can modify nouns. Sinclair claims
"Much a t e c h n i c a l
refer to
colour,
that
j a r g o n is of this kind, and
it is difficult to u n d e r s t a n d because
precise meaning
the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between each
noun
- and the next is not clear from the syntax; also
each pair of nouns can make up a special
compound which then operates
as a single
word,
and e v e n t u a l l y gets w r i t t e n with a hyphen
between the two w o r d s , or a single
word."
compound
25
He still says that there is no limit to the power of
compounding
nouns in m o d e r n
the nominal
group
English. As an e x a m p l e , he
'The vent c o n t r o l ! knob key lubricant
"Stress and i n t o n a t i o n
presents
can'
patterns can usually be
relied upon to supply the correct meaning
.such compounds
headword
as the tendency
is for
the
to receive n u c l e a r stress: e. g.
^English teacher' and
Unfortunately
'an English
in
'an
teacher ' .
this i n f o r m a t i o n does not apper
in the w r i t t e n
The use or the omission
form." 2 ? 7
of a hyphen in the
nominal
groups whose elements in the delicacy scale at (m) appear in a
great number - namely the exponents of n - seems to mean
very
little to our s t u d e n t s ; m o r e o v e r , the texts used for our
students
show that there is little c o n s i s t e n c y among writers
in this
respect.
Considering
noun m o d i f i c a t i o n , we can say that
there
16
are two main
types:
a) nh s t r u c t u r e , where n classifies
in
1
the h e a d w o r d , as
techni color fi 1 m'
n
h
b) sn and sh s t r u c t u r e s , where
the s u b c l a s s i f i e r
(here
represented by s, and also with a noun as its
exponent)
classifies
its h e a d w o r d ; as examples
Sinclair's:20
both structures we can quote
'instruction - manual
s
n
holder'
n
'trans i stor
h
radi o-set'
s
h
Two other types of m o d i f i e r s
have also to be
taken
into account: the - i n g words which operate at e and n,
the -en words
in position e, either-as
qualitative
(those which can be submodified by words
etc) or as classifying
adjectives
convey the meaning of classifying
like
and
adjectives
'very',
'more',
(the ones that are said to
rather than describi ng 29 ) .
Besides being able to operate at h, -ing words
also belong
to three types of e, namely
ii) classifying
n and h.
20
of
i) q u a l i t a t i v e
adjectives and i i i ). s u b - c l a s s i f i e r s
Thus, we can have as examples
i) a very exciting
can
adjectives;
of nouns
at
of:
person
ii) the s i i i k i n g ship
iii) a fi s hi ng- tackle shop ( s u b - c l a s s i f i e r at n)
the meeti ng-pl ace
(.sub-classifier at h)..
-ing words and - e n words are important kinds of m o d i f i e r s
for
our a n a l y s i s , because they can also be e x p o n e n t s of P, and as
such they have caused problems
to our
students.
Both types of m o d i f i e r s , - i n g ones and -er. o n e s , can
17
be submodified by adverbs or s u b - c l a s s i f i e d
examples from Sinclair's
by nouns;
the
are:
i) a wel1 - fed calf
(-en w o r d s u b - m o d i f i e d by an
- adverb)
ii) a mi 1k-fed calf
(-en word sub-class ified by a
noun)
iii) an i 11-fi tti ng grey suit
i n g word
by an
sub-modified
adverb)
iv) a m a g n i f i c e n t record- breaki ng jump (-ing word subclassified by
a noun)..
The modifiers cari thus present a delicacy scale whose
elements are d, o, e and n; at d we have the general
deictics; at o the numerals, at e the qualitative
classifying
adjectives
and the
structura-1
and
specific
adjectives,
7O
'colour' a d j e c t i v e s .
the
Submodi.fiers
can operate at d, as in 'every single book 1 ; at e, as in 'a very
beautiful
view',
'very blue, interesting
in ' i ns truc ti on- manual
eyes';53
and at n, as,
holder' and at h in 'textiles pri ce-control ' .
The latter examples a re probably the m o s t d i f f i c u l t ones
there
is not a consistent way to mark
the r e l a t i o n s h i p
one noun and the other, or o t h e r s , in a nominal
written
between
group in the
medium.
*
The errors w h i c h interest us m o s t in this work
the ones which have m a i n t a i n e d the same sequence as the
structural
elements
in their equivalents
b a s i c a l l y , we have been i n t e r e s t e d
according
are
English
in P o r t u g u e s e .
in the errors whose
characteristic was to order the e x p o n e n t s
nominal
since
in
to the sequence of the structural
Thus,
main
Portuguese
elements
groups. M o r e o v e r , we have r e s t r i c t e d our work
in
English
to two
18
structural
elements
the translation
in nominal
groups, namely
into Portuguese
of e x p o n e n t s
(m) and h, since
operating
at
(q)
has not constituted a problematic area for our s t u d e n t s ;
Portuguese
the-headword is generally followed by
qualifiers;
except for the deictics which also operate at (m) in
the most usual
in
Portuguese,
position of the words which are said to belong
to the adjective
class operating
delicacy scale of m o d i f i e r s
at e and n in the
English
is after the headword, at q. This
does not imply that an exponent of e and n cannot operate
(m) just like they do in English. H o w e v e r , errors
co-occurred with other types of e r r o r s ,
at
of sequence
such as non-
recognition
of 's s t r u c t u r e , errors of lexis plus non- r e c o g n i t i o n of 's
structure, to quote
some.
We have labelled as w o r d - b o u n d
trans1 ation
those which have resulted from the t r a n s l a t i o n
a nominal
group following
the same sequence of the exponents
group
1 . HEAD SHAPE
m.
h
h
m
2. normal
h
h
by
q
eventual
q.
of translation a second type of
was also detected:
inadequate
group.
insertion of a
error
rankshifted
(.This type of error has the short form i rg error),. As
the two students who t r a n s l a t e d the f i r s t nominal
group
'cabeça moldada' did not detect the h e a d w o r d of the
nominal
students
moldada'
From the first example
the
in
examples:
Portuguese t r a n s l a t i o n
1. 'cabeça
2. NORMAL.EVENT
errors,
of every word of
English. T h u s , we consider wbt error the following
English nominal
35
into
English
group CHEAD SHAPE ) they also showed that they were
not
h
able to insert a r a n k s h i f t e d
prepositional
group w i t h i n
the
19
nominal
group
in Portuguese;
expected translation
'forma da cabeça' m i g h t be
into P o r t u g u e s e , where
considered a rankshifted group operating
representation would be
of h in
'da.cabeça' may be
at (q), and
the
[q ] , and. 'forma' would be the
exponent
Portuguese.
Some other students were aware that an
might be made but they did not succeed in doing
For instance, the t r a n s l a t i o n
English nominal
groups
3. TEACHING LAW
m
properly.
of:
Portuguese
h
h
4.
insertion
it
translation by
3. 'ensi no de leis'
4. SKIN COLOUR
m
the
1
(by 4 students)
*j
pele de cor'
h
h
students
(by 3 students) .
[q ]
Within these two broad types of e r r o r s , wbt and i rg, we
have
classified fourteen types of errors which were made along
with
the wbt and i rg ones. This detailed c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 3 6 '
based
on the results
in Portuguese. Here are some examples
fourteen types according
to the rendered e q u i v a l e n t s
was
of the
in
Portuguese:
I -
Error of sequence
and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n
THE PUBLIC A U T H O R I T Y ' S
'as públicas
II -
THE COUNTRY'S
'os países dos
III -
's s t r u c t u r e :
RESPONSIBILITIES
autoridades
Error of sequence
of
responsáveis'
in 's s t r u c t u r e :
UNIVERSITIES
universitários'
Error of s e q u e n c e , lexis and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n
structure
PLANCK'S UNIVERSAL
'tábua universal
CONSTANT
constante'
of 's
20
IV -
Error of sequence with Portuguese
deviant
forms:
THE 'NOBLE' METALS
1
V -
o nobre meta i s'
Error of sequence and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n
THE CHANGING
'mudanças
VI -
VII -
of h-:
NEEDS
necessárias'
Errors of sequence and production of two or more jis :
ADMINISTRATIVE
ACTIVITIES
'administração
e atividades'
Error of sequence, partial
t r a n s l a t i o n with
recognition
of h:
SICKLE-CELL
1
VIII -
ANEMIA
"sickle-cell"
Error of sequence and u n n e c e s s a r y
rankshifted
insertion of a
group:
THE CHANGING
NEEDS
'mudanças nas
IX -
anemia'
i
necessidades'
Error of sequence and addition of an
rankshifted
inadequate
group:
A NEW UNIVERSITY
TEACHING
LAW
'uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e de e n s i n a m e n t o . d e
X -
lei'
Error of sequence and lack of a r a n k s h i f t e d
group:
A NEW UNIVERSITY T E A C H I N G LAW.
XI -
'uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e
ensinando
Inadequate translation
of
EARLY
(os)
lei'
(m):
SCIENTISTS
'antes
cientistas'
i
XII -
Error of c o l l o c a t i o n :
27
21
THE THIN, FLEXIBLE
DRUM
'o m a g r o , flexível
tímpano'
XIII - • Error due to formal
s i m i l a r i t y between English
Portuguese, w i t h , or w i t h o u t error of
THE NEXT
'neste
XIV -
and
sequence:
INSTANT
instante'
Singular for plural
CERTAIN
'o certo
with a d d i t i o n of a deictic:
PATTERNS
padrão'
A full analysis of the two types of errors which concern
research is given in chapter
this
5.
A few comments on the kind of EL I Course offered by
UFPB and its relevance
the next chapter.
to local
situation will
be produced
in
22
NOTES
7
SINCLAIR, J. McH. A course in spoken English
London, Oxford University Press, 1972. 266 p.
2
Sinclair explains that his grammar tries to
grammar.
describe
the structure of the English people use; it concentrates
on the
most common varieties of spoken and written British English. He
claims
that the terms
grammars:
deep and surface are fashionable
in
"Depth in a grammar concerns the way in which
grammatical
categories are related to the exponents"
p.4.
a) Besides categories and exponents being closely related, the
definition of categories
involves a number of other
- such as clause, nominal
groups, predicator, m o o d ,
categories
interrogation,
number, concord; each has a definition which involves
probably including subject. But definitions are not
others,
sufficient
to make us recognize, for instance, the subject of (1) THE
SPARROW HAS FLOWN AWAY. Sinclair says that we would have to
change the verb tense from
'past' to 'present' and show the
difference between singular and plural; here, another
category
has also been used - that of tense. b) Another way of showing
what is meant by grammatical
categories
is the use of
Although it may not be clear what exactly is meant by
or 'nominal
group' a number of such examples and their
examples.
'predicator'
analysis
may be helpful.
(2) THE SPARROW FLEW AWAY
(3) DID THE SPARROW FLY AWAY?
Consider the example
(4) MY FRIEND HAS WALKED FROM LONDON
as (5) MY FRIEND/HAS WALKED / FROM
subject
predicator
LONDON.
adjunct
All the words in sentence (4) are new but there is no
in the analysis. The examples of actual
(4) and (5) are exponents :
analysed
sentences
difficulty
(1) (2) (3)
"words, letters, punctuation marks
and so on that actually make up the language we w r i t e . . . They
are physical
events that grammar helps to describe.
" p.5.
This sort of grammar is surface grammar. "This one keeps
as close to surface structure as possible. Every step that it
might take, in depth is measured against the amount of
complication
23
and abstraction
that w o u l d be caused."
The introductory
p.8.
part of his grammar
concepts of grammar by way of justifying
5 - 9 he shows all
presents
own
his a p p r o a c h . On pages
the i n v o l v e m e n t of the surface
the deep one in which the changes
his
in meaning
structure
is c o n v e y e d by a
semantic insertion of the roles played by the elements of
sentence:
I (Interested Party) M (Mover)
on page 6 the same deep structure
different sequences
involving
examples
and E (Entity);
of a s e n t e n c e .
This
points out the similarity of
voice with another structure of
the influence
P (Pivot)
a
is realized by means of four
of the elements
complicated type of analysis
with
'copula
passive
plus c o m p l e m e n t ' ,
of passive over other c h o i c e s , mainly
besides
the one
'transitivity'; more c o m p l i c a t e d rules are needed
for
like:
(6) MY BROTHER LENT BILL A BOOK
(7) THE OLD MAN WAS
HAPPY
He says that the subject of the passive cannot be the M
as in
(8) THE WORM WAS EATEN BY THE
(Entity)
Examples
(Pivot)
THRUSH
(Mover)
(9) and (10) do net describe the same
(9) JOHN SOLD THE
M
P
(Mover)
event:
CAR
E
(10) JOHN WAS SOLD THE
I
P
CAR
E
"Their relation is like that between past and p r e s e n t ,
and plural, because the grammatical
singular
change alters the meaning
in a predictable way." p.11. Other e x a m p l e s , such as
(11) THE T O M A T O E S
GREW
WELL
(12) THE T O M A T O E S W E R E GROWN
are the ones selected by Sinclair
of his book; he claims
WELL
to illustrate
the
organisation
that (11) and (12) have no object
and
focus a t t e n t i o n on the same item (TOMATOES). He says that
effect of paring
relations
grammar.
(11) and (12) is that the deep
"the
structural
are m e n t i o n e d but not used in the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the
Instead, clauses w i t h s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e are
contrasted
i n mean i ng." p.11 .
These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were made to show the
main
24
distinctions
work with
between Sinclair's systemic g r a m m a r and those which
'surface' and
'deep' structure
We assumed that the approach
that our students
similar
of the Portuguese
are used to consulting
to the way Systemic Grammar
concépts.
grammar
and referring
presents its
to
is
hierarchical
scale of units.
^SINCLAIR
p.13. He has decided to use the term
instead of 'phrase' because
grammars, and could be
5
'group'
"it has many meanings already
in
misleading."
Ibid.
^Ibid.
p.14.
?
Ibid.
p.133.
5
1 b i d . p.134.
p
I b i d . p. 209.
IÖ
Ibid.
p.134.
'
The example given was HE JUMPED OFF THE
WALL in which OFF THE WALL operates at A in clause
as a prepositional
group with w h i c h there is no nominal
to contrast with; from the previous
are some relations
"1
structure,
group
examples we see that
there
between:
a. He stayed three weeks
b. He stayed for three weeks :i
for examples
1 a. and 1 b. are very similar in m e a n i n g ; he says
that there is no nominal
WALL.
group to contrast w i t h HE JUMPED OFF THE
.
3
Ibid.
2
I b i d.
p.134-5.
p.143.
13
C A T F O R D , J. C. A linguistic
theory of
translation.
London, Oxford University Press, 1965. p . 8 - 9 ; 78-9.
14
The usual position of a d j e c t i v e s in Portuguese
is after
the noun; however, some adjectives m a y precede the noun with
some change of m e a n i n g ; as to the deictics^
in
Portuguese
25
they usually precede the noun. This subject
is
elaborated,
with d e t a i l s , in BACK, Eurico & M A T T O S , Geraldo. Gramati ca
construtural
p. 311-19.
da língua
portuguesa. São Paulo, FT D, 1 9 72 . v. 1.
What Sinclair calls a nominal
m e n t i o n e d above call
'locução
their concept is the nucleus
the exponent of the nucleus
(núcleo)
in a 'locução
substantiva';
is also a noun; as to the
position or function w i t h i n the
according
to
adjectives,
their
'locução s u b s t a n t i v a ' . From the
presented on page 312, by BACK & M A T T O S , we are
interested in those adjectives
tivos',
authors
s u b s t a n t i v a ' . The h e a d w o r d in
they have been divided in 7 s u b - c l a s s e s
examples
group the
that they have called
'especificativos' e 'pátrios' because
position in relation to the nucleus
it is
'qualificatheir
that has served as the basis
for this work. Those authors say that the
'especificativos'
those which occur immediately after the nucleus, or the
the
'pátrios' - the ones concerning
may come
the
nationalities
immediately after the noun or after the
'qualificativos'
are the ones which may come
before the noun or after it; if there are
'pátrios'
in between, the
adjective(s) after the
It
is
not
'qualificativos'
are
noun;
or origin - •
'especificativos';
immediately
'especificativos'
come after the
or
last
noun.
our purpose to e s t a b l i s h a c o m p a r i s o n
between the classes and s u b - c l a s s e s
of a d j e c t i v e s as
presented
by BACK & MATTOS and the delicacy scale at (m) as S i n c l a i r
has
devised it; we have already seen that there is not a c o n s i s t e n t
way of classifying
the exponents
operating
the systemic grammar and the constructural
is to show that our students
modifiers
at e and n between
one. Our m a i n
concern
do not d e t e c t the headword
and
in an English ngp, or if they do so, they are
not
able to change
(m) to the e q u i v a l e n t element in Portuguese
operates at (q), besides
ignoring
the sequence of the
which
exponents
in the rendered translations which usually present an a w k w a r d
a r r a n g e m e n t , not to mention
those cases w h e r e
comprehension
has been completely o b s t r u c t e d ; m o r e o v e r , we know that the
occurrence of some sort of adjectives before the noun,
Portuguese, is due to some s t y l i s t i c reasons
or it may
ruled by semantic c r i t e r i a ; on page 315 BACK & M A T T O S
in
also be
have
quoted an example where the
'colour' adjective may occupy
(m) or (q) positions giving
rise to d i f f e r e n t
either
interpretations.
26
2S
A rankshifted group is usually p r e s e n t e d between a
pair of brackets.
A rankshifted clause
is usually presented b e t w e e n a double
pair of brackets. See MUIR, James. A m o d e r n approach to
grammar. London, B a t s f o r d , 1972.
-^SINCLAIR,
149 p.
p.147. A hat this size and The
m
h
English
[q ]
owner
m
h
of that car are examples of r a n k s h i f t e d groups w i t h i n
ngps.
[q]
17
A double pair of brackets at (q) indicates that a clause
is operating
at that
element.
" ^ S I N C L A I R , p.149-173.
CATFORD,
p.10.
^ S I N C L A I R , -p.14.
2Ö
CATF0RD,
p.10.
21
Partially copied from S i n c l a i r ,
25
SINCLAIR,
23
Ibid.
2
^ I b i d.
25
p.157.
p.154.
p.156.
p.160.
Ibid. p.161. We do not find it necessary
to
present
Sinclair's detailed c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the types of
adjectives
which may operate at e; m o r e o v e r ,
receive a
different c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
& Mattos
these a d j e c t i v e s
in the constructural
that we m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , in note
^SINCLAIR,
grammar by Back
14.
p.168.
27
BAMBER, Brian. Systemic g r a m m a r . C u r i t i b a ,
lecture delivered at the Curso de P o s - G r a d u a ç ã o
Federal
U n i v e r s i t y of
^SINCLAIR,
Ibid.
Parana.
p.169.
p.165.
1978.
em Letras at the
27
30
lbid.
p.170.
SJ
Ibid.
p.173.
32
Ibid.
p.161.
33
Ibid. p . 1 6 2 . On p a g e s 1 6 4 - 7 S i n c l a i r
v a r i e t y of m e a n i n g s
concerning
and the c l a s s i f y i n g
o n e s ; he i l l u s t r a t e s
attributing
two d i f f e r e n t
- a) an e x c i t i n g
structures
p e r f o r m a n c e , or
As a) the structural
for q u a l i t a t i v e
the m o b i l i t y
elements
adjectives)
points
of c o l o u r
in A D R A M A T I C
As
to the usual
we have a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d
Gramática
construtural
are i n t e r e s t e d
and as b) the s t r u c t u r a l
da lingua
in a n a l y s i n g
w i t h E n g l i s h nominal
groups
the way our
(m) in E n g l i s h
students
equivalent
in P o r t u g u e s e at (q), as well
structural
nominal
Portuguese
Geraldo.
have
groups
14.
We
dealt
from
to
as their
element
elements
See note
as to the c l a s s - s h i f t
element
groups.
in
& MATTOS,
portuguesa.
stands
adjectives).
of a d j e c t i v e s
structural
given to the c o m p u l s o r y
of a play.
are d ea h (in w h i c h ea
to B A C K , Eurico
of
PERFORMANCE
b) the p e r f o r m a n c e
positions
the
adjectives
the p o s s i b i l i t y
are d ec h (in w h i c h ec stands for c l a s s i f y i n g
24
out
the
its
treatment
h in the same
nominal
,
25
CATF0RD,
p.25,
See A p p e n d i x
75-6.
2 . 2 . 4 . for a full
list of
errors.
27 •
CATFORD,
the
'lexical
p.10. C o l l o c a t i o n , as d e v i s e d by C a t f o r d ,
company'
that a particular
'magro' does not c o l l o c a t e w i t h
item k e e p s .
'timpano'.
In
is
Portuguese
28
CHAPTER 2
RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH TO LOCAL
SITUATION
The students of English Language
I Course
generally
enroll for this course in their first semester at the University.
Later, in their undergraduate courses, they may take
English course as an optional
another
discipline. However, their need
for English as an auxiliary discipline
for other school subjects
is to be met from the very beginning of their academic
Thus, English Language
I Course is one of their
life.
compulsory
disciplines, but their attendance at ESP (English for
Purposes) Cours es which are offered by the DLEM to
Specific
undergraduates,
graduate students who intend to apply for a post-graduation
course, or even to post-graduate
students at the UFPB is optional.
Post-graduate students at the UFPB usually have to sit for an
examination in a foreign language before their enrollment in any
post-graduation course; they are expected to be proficient in a
foreign language since they have to read specialized
literature
in a foreign language. These students usually attend ESP Courses
which are offered by the DLEM every semester. For
instance,
during the first semester of 1980 ESP Courses were offered to
167 graduate and post-graduate students; the gra.duate
belonged to courses such as Nursing, Mechanical
Physical
students
Engineering,
Education, Food Engineering. The post-graduate
were attending courses
in M e d i c i n e , Social
Sciences and
In the second semester of 1980, 1,162 undergraduate
students
others.
students
have been enrolled for EL I Course; they have to attend £L
Course as a compulsory discipline, as they might also
French Language
I Course, or even German Language
I
attend
I Course, for
29
choice.
The preparation of our students
literature
for reading
specific
is one of the m a i n purposes of the DLEM; it aims
providing students at any academic
read technical
level with the ability
texts so that,they will
their academic studies
be able to carry
to
out
efficiently.
Thus, the m a i n point in an English
and in any ESP Course
at
is to train students
Language
in reading
I Course
skills.
This common aspect has already been m e n t i o n e d in this work:
reading
to be
of technical
texts has been one of UFPB students'
the
needs
satisfied.
In fact, the growth of the UFPB and the n e c e s s i t y
keeping
pace with all
the developmental
needs required by the
society to supply the needs of this same society are the
factors which have led the UFPB not only to e x p a n d the
of courses offered but also to improve
step towards
main
number
the quality of those
courses. ESP Courses have been the result of this
we might also say that English Language
for
development;
I Courses were the f i r s t ,
the p r o v i s i o n of ESP Courses
for the graduate
and
post-graduate students. Nowadays the former have tried to
reach
the status of pre-ESP Courses on the a s s u m p t i o n
English
Language
I students will c e r t a i n l y
feel
that our
the need to give continuity
to their English lessons, since we all know that one s e m e s t e r of
any foreign language course
deficiencies
is not s u f f i c i e n t to remedy all
of m o s t of the n e w l y - a d m i t t e d u n i v e r s i t y
in relation to their a b i l i t y to read technical
It is the performance
Language Course
students,
texts.
of our students in
I that may enable us to foresee the
the
English
probable
30
areas of difficulties
specific disciplines
in reading
texts w h i c h deal with
of their c o u r s e s . Here, we feel
the
the
need
to e m p h a s i z e , once m o r e , the main concern of this work:
detect some of the problems
involved in the reading of technical
texts, having as the material
texts made
support the translations
is to train students
in reading
English
texts and that any programme designed for English
of
technical
Language
I is to be seen as a basic course for further ESP Courses.
We have often referred to the reading o f
texts,
of those
in class. We assume that one of the main purposes
ESP Courses
Course
to
technical
however, we assume that the linguistic area of difficulties
that we have been trying to detect m i g h t also be detected
non-specific
texts; in dealing with texts which
expounded
content not linked to their specific a c a d e m i c s t u d i e s ,
students m i g h t also be faced with the same kinds of
Poor or u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
in this case, m a y block
knowledge of a foreign
the understanding
assume
that our
our
difficulties.
language,
English
of a text, even
its content may belong to the m a i n subjects of the
course. We also
s t u d e n t s , as
in
if
students'
newly-admitted
university students, are not capable of studying any text about
any subject which may belong
to their a c a d e m i c area, or field,
without any d i f f i c u l t y ; from experience we lenow that m o s t
sometimes know the subject dealt with
in a text and are able to
infer the m e s s a g e ; others may know the subject but admit
the informati on 1 that they are getting
students
that
from the text is not in
accordance with w h a t they know a b o u t the s u b j e c t ;
it may
seem
strange for people who are not familiar w i t h this type of course
that situations such as the latter may occur, but it is quite
common to hear students saying that w h a t they have been
reading
31
in the text does not fit with what they know about the
content
This has been one of the causes for this w o r k : to detect
of the linguistic
areas which might be blocking
comprehension
so that a new approach towards c e r t a i n linguistic areas
reading of technical
Language
texts m i g h t be a d o p t e d in future
I Course p r o g r a m m e s . Before doing
form the basis
of the next
in the
English
so however, it
necessary to take a look at what the reading
and will
some
chapter.
process
is
involves,
32
NOTE
2
I myself have u n d e r l i n e d
i
the w o r d
information
33
CHAPTER 3
READING
.3.1, Some lines of
COMPREHENSION
thought
Reading as it is viewed in EL I Course
forcibly include
the oral
performance
is- related to the ability
medium of English as a foreign
not
of our students so that
intonation and p r o n u n c i a t i o n can be tested.
case, reading
does
In our
specific
to interpret the written
language. Silent reading is what
generally takes place in EL I C o u r s e , since students are
to be trained to consult specific l i t e r a t u r e
concerning
their major
The problems
still
in
assumed
English,
disciplines.
involved
in the process of reading
open to i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; although there
agreement on what is involved in the reading
is no general
or decoding
we intend to indicate some of the m a i n lines of recent
about that process .
are
process,
thought
i
Carver -z. sorts o u t the skills of the f l u e n t reader as
a base to make up a reading
lesson; he views c o m p r e h e n s i o n
linked to real-life a c t i v i t y , and he points out three
features in comprehensive work:
skills;
b) a c q u i s i t i o n
a) the" d e v e l o p m e n t
of c o n t e n t ;
c) e x p a n s i o n of
as
particular
of
reading
language
competence.
Among a great number of skill's Carver has
"The a b i l i t y to d i s c o v e r specific
see the w r i t e r ' s
the meaning
quoted:
facts...
point of view... to
of unknown words from the
instead of resorting
infer
context,
to the d i c t i o n a r y . . .
see how one part of the text relates
to
to
to
34
another...
to follow an
argument
or
d i s c u s s i o n . . . to visualize w h a t is
in w o r d s . . .
to note the s i g n i f i c a n c e
'logical' expressions
T H I S , HE, IN THIS WAY,
These s k i l l s , according
described
of such
as H O W E V E R , T H U S , AND SO
FINALLY..."2
to C a r v e r , can be d e v e l o p e d with
teacher's help, in a c c o r d a n c e with the purpose of the
Carver emphasizes
that reading
in classroom
the
course.
situation
should be as close to real-life a c t i v i t y as p o s s i b l e . He claims
that reading w i t h o u t p r e p a r a t i o n is a real-life a c t i v i t y ; a good
reader knows how to cope with a d i f f i c u l t w o r d as he meets
he may ignore it, or guess
it, make sense of it from the
it;
context
ask his n e i g h b o u r , look it up in a dictionary or "read on in the
.hope that the w o r d will
turn up again and be c l e a r e r next
From the translations
r e n d e r e d by our EL I students we
m i g h t infer that they have not always
s u c c e e d e d in following
the steps above- to smooth away some of their d i f f i c u l t i e s
ngps. When a ngp turned up twice in a text, some
t r a n s l a t e d it c o r r e c t l y
in the second time that ngp
sickle-cel1' anemia".
other
ANEMIA
(J 2C ).
Part of the ngp has been w r i t t e n
between q u o t a t i o n marks so that the teacher m i g h t infer
those students did not find the P o r t u g u e s e
'sickle-cel 1
or
rise to a partial
t r a n s l a t i o n , as in the t r a n s l a t i o n of S I C K L E - C E L L
s
with
appeared,
-omitted its t r a n s l a t i o n every time that ngp turned up;
inserted a part of the ngp in English giving
all
students
while others m a i n t a i n e d the first incorrect t r a n s l a t i o n ,
into "
time".
equivalent
that
to
only.
D i f f e r e n t from Carver's
t h e o r y , which bases
on a fluent reader's s k i l l s , G a r d n e r states
that:
reading
35
"reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n
is not merely
function of c a p a b i l i t i e s within the
Some writers succeed in making
a
reader.
themselves
unreadable. There is a sense, t h e r e f o r e ,
w h i c h reading
ability
comprehension
in
rests on our
to overcome the d i f f i c u l t i e s
placed
in our way by a w r i t e r .
but, says
Gardner,
"to acquire adequate
reading
comprehension
we need to come to terms with the special
unique forms of language, which writers
to
use".
is more
than
"the surface melody o f f e r e d by the
composer.
To probe the underlying h a r m o n i e s one
score".
That is to say, reading
of interpreting
the detail
needs
of
the
6
comprehension
involves a p p l i c a t i o n
some form of analysis to the m e a n i n g s of the superficial
asan
tend
5
Gardner suggests that reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n
a means
and
e x t e n s i o n of the initial
c o m p r e h e n s i o n , besides
of
read,
the
assumpti on tha t
"what a reader c o m p r e h e n d s
function of that reader's
is of an a s s u m e d reading
Depending
on the reader's
intentions
is as much a
intentions
as it
competence".7
the products of reading
may
present different levels of c o m p r e h e n s i o n . A reader may read to
obtain only a surface m e a n i n g , or he may reflect and pose critical
analysis
to his first impressions.
G a r d n e r also claims
that
"no m a t t e r how levels of c o m p r e h e n s i o n
are
a n a l y s e d , h o w e v e r , it seems that an
essential
e l e m e n t is the interaction b e t w e e n
the
intentions of the reader and the
w h i c h are a v a i l a b l e
of reading
rest on:
.to a c h i e v e , and
'meanings'
in the text. The outcomes
a) what the reader w i s h e s
b) his c o m p e t e n c e
in utilizing
36
«
the printed text in order to e x t r a c t
'meanings' a p p r o p r i a t e
As to our specific case, EL I students
for his
the
intentions".5
need English as an
instrument for further studies and ngps have proved to be
the
linguistic form which has blocked the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of meaning
in the texts
translated.
Gardner still
says that the level
of
comprehension
can be d e t e r m i n e d by p s y c h o l o g i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l ,
and technical
factors. Psychological
methodological
factors can determine
degree of involvement between the reader and the text. The
of understanding
varies according
interest, or attitude
depth
purposes,
in relation to the text. The quality
reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n will
conceptual
to the reader's
the
also be a f f e c t e d by the
of
reader's
range:
"we have to know all
about w h a t we are
about before we can u n d e r s t a n d
it.
Certainly,
it is d i f f i c u l t to learn from reading
we have already
read i ng".
M o r e o v e r , the e f f e c t i v e n e s s
reading
unless
'learned' before we come to
9
of reading will
be also
influenced
by the method that the reader adopts. He m u s t be able to employ
strategies which will
and what
permit him to e x p l o i t w h a t comes
ahead
he has already s c a n n e d in t h e . p a s s a g e , so that mastery
of the material
can be a c h i e v e d . The way some texts are
can also affect reading
produced
comprehension.
"If reading
of meaning
is c o n s i d e r e d to be the reconstruction
in the mind of the a u t h o r
(Goodman)
then it follows that the author m u s t adopt a
mode of p r e s e n t a t i o n w h i c h makes such
available
to the
reader".^
The ordering of the w r i t t e n material
as well
meanings
0
as the
linguistic
37
forms of the message may be a relevant factor to make
more or less accessible
Assuming
to the
reading
reader.
that our students were interested in the
texts that they were s t u d y i n g , and that they had some
knowledge
of the subjects d i s c u s s e d in those t e x t s , we are inclined to
assume that methodological
and technical
comprehension; their lack of e x p e r i e n c e
strategies
to a f o r e i g n - l a n g u a g e
factors
hava
in applying
affected
reading
text and their inability
to
cope with ngp structure may have h a m p e r e d the understanding
those
of
texts.
Sloane^^
first concerns
views reading as based on two skills; the
the actual way we read and it comprises
macro-skills of reading: skimming
reading
locating
- which refers to a quick
to get the main idea; scanning
of significant details
the
- which refers to
in the text; and
the
intensive
reading - of whole or parts of the text. The e m p l o y m e n t of any
of these skills depends on what you are reading and why you are
readi ng .
The second kind of skill
in reading concerns what we
do while we are reading: the inferences we m a k e , prediction
what is going to come next, the guessing of new words
context clues and the disregarding of new words
or
of
from
phrases.
These are the m i c r o - s k i l l s of reading and they interact with
the m a c r o - s k i l l s
of skimming
and intensive
reading, but
with scanning since this cannot stand on its own because
must be preceded b.v skimming
Since Sloane claims
for i n f e r e n c e - m a k i n g , i 2
or followed by intensive
that a factual
text in
we may assume that our
not
it
reading.
unfavourable
students'
38
inability
to guess
new words
from the c o n t e x t c l u e s
has a l r e a d y b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d
English
the t r a n s l a t i o n
ngps - m i g h t have been o v e r c o m e
experience
of the s u b j e c t s
class. To this
the s u b j e c t s
s t u d i e d was still
understanding
of the
Although
processes
of the
involved
comprehension
studied
in
that their e x p e r i e n c e
of
texts
and t h a t t h e i r
has h a n d i c a p p e d
texts s t u d i e d
to this a s p e c t will
some w r i t e r s
reading
have
and thinking
techniques
processes,
have
is in this area of r e l a t i o n s
be given
the
approach
as well
the
as all
they have a d m i t t e d
the p s y c h o l o g i c a l
between
the
that
ones
and
It
l a n g u a g e and t h o u g h t
to l a n g u a g e
is a p p l i e d .
14
that
Basically,
can be s t u d i e d w i t h i n
a foreign
language
c a n n o t be
in the same way a c h i l d a c q u i r e s
in i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
perceptual
cognitive abilities.
However, reading
involves
of s t u d i e s
other areas
i t s e l f , is not in p r i n c i p l e
learning.
in
the
acquisition
performance.
Learning
language
to
in those EL I
problems w h i c h concern p s y c h o ! i ngui s ti cs : l a n g u a g e
developed
lead us
not b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d yet.13
is one of the skills w h i c h
and l a n g u a g e
lack
their
t r i e d to set up
in c o m p r e h e n s i o n ,
cognitive
the p s y c h o l o g i c a l
of
work.
between
the h i g h - l e v e l
in those
this
assumed
texts. This a s s u m p t i o n may also
groups; closer attention
last part of this
by .their
restricted,
ngp s t r u c t u r e
think over the a d e q u a c y
distinctions
presented
p o i n t , we have a s s u m e d
of m a s t e r y of E n g l i s h
reading
through
- and
C o r d e r says
that
entirely
his e x p e r i e n c e
and m o t o r
skills
comprehension,
and
though
b e s i d e s the l i n g u i s t i c
different
of
from o t h e r kinds
area
of
it
/
39
"it is the c i r c u m s t a n c e s
and linguistic data)
(learner,
in which
place that are different.
necessarily
teacher
learning
It does
takes
not
follow for that reason that the
processes of learning are di f ferent".
For our students learning
a foreign
language
"is a m a t t e r of adaptation or extensi on
existing
skills and knowledge
the relearning
rather
of
than
of a completely new set
of
skills from s c r a t c h . . . We can conclude
t h i s . . . that there are some
properties which all
fundamental
languages
and that when these fundamental
have in common.,
properties
have once been learned (through their
tongue m a n i f e s t a t i o n )
manifestation
much smaller
of language... is a relatively
task".
like all other language s k i l l s , but this
performance:
act, just
characterization
in the receptive group of the
the productive and the receptive
read presupposes the ability
mother-
the learning of a second
Reading has been classified as an observable physical
excludes reading
from
two-division
performance.
To
to speak and hear,
"thus, the language teacher is c o n c e r n e d
with teaching
'speaking
hearing
speaking and h e a r i n g , etc. but
in F r e n c h , or reading German
Italian'... the teacher...
these skills in some perhaps
superficial
For W i d d o w s o n
fashion".'
reading
relatively
27
b e t w e e n the
the aims of language
he
conventional
teaching courses
reference to s p e a k i n g , listening, reading and w r i t i n g ,
the way language is realized in c o m m u n i c a t i o n ;
notions
or
extends
is not only recepti ve ; 1 8
has e s t a b l i s h e d some distinctions
notions w h i c h define
not
can be r e p r e s e n t e d as p r o d u c t i v e / a c t i v e
by
and
those conventional
skills,
40
comprising
speaking and w r i t i n g , and r e c e p t i v e / p a s s i v e
comprising .1 i stening and reading, when considering
In w r i t i n g , the writer assumes the reader's
•said to be receptive
skills,
19
usage.
role; it can
be
in the sense that he interprets w h a t has
been said before, he assesses how w h a t has already been
and is being w r i t t e n will
written
be received by the reader. If we
regard reading as being r e c e p t i v e , c o n s e q u e n t l y writing as use
can
be partially r e c e p t i v e , t o o . 2 ^
of discourse
involves
In r e a d i n g , the understanding
not only the ability
meaning of words and sentences
value that those words and sentences
"Reading
the
- w h i c h is referred to
'comprehending' by W i d d o w s o n - but also
with each other as elements
to recognize
as
the r e c o g n i t i o n of the
take on in
association
in a d i s c o u r s e .
in this sense is a kind of
a c c o m p l i s h m e n t w h e r e b y a. discourse
is
in the mind by means of a process of
created
reasoning.
In this respect, the ability to read and the
ability
to w r i t e are the same and it is
neutral
with regard to p r o d u c t i o n or r e c e p t i o n " .
21
This ability to create or recreate d i s c o u r s e , common to both
writing and reading as c o m m u n i c a t i v e
'interpreting'.
I n t e r p r e t i n g , says
a c t i v i t i e s , is
called
Widdowson,
"... is a psychological
process w h i c h ,
'talking', is not r e a l i z e d as actual
activity.
mind."
... it is covert a c t i v i t y in the
and non-reciprocal
activities;
is that
refer to psychological
overt through physical
or social
concerning
the f o r m e r take
form of exchange between two or m o r e p a r t i c i p a n t s ;
activities
social
22
Another a s p e c t involved in language skills
reciprocal
unlike
the
non-reciprocal
a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h are not made
activity.
Interpreting
is the
41
highest level
non-reciproca1
skill
for
"it is the ability
to process
language
c o m m u n i c a t i o n and it underlies
all
as
language
use. You cannot talk or c o r r e s p o n d
without
interpreting
without
corresponding".23
talking or
Widdowson also states
but you can i n t e r p r e t
that
"the ultimate aim in language learning
acquire c o m m u n i c a t i v e
competence,
to
interpret,
w h e t h e r this is made overt in talking
corresponding
or w h e t h e r it remains
a psychological
activity
underlying
to say, l i s t e n , w r i t e and
As to our students'
problems
read".
is to
or
covert as
the
ability
24
in dealing with ngps, we-
infer that they are at a stage at w h i c h the r e c o g n i t i o n of the
meaning
of words and groups
consequently
of words is necessary so that they can
interpret c o r r e c t l y the m e s s a g e
says that the "communicative
but not the
conveyed.
a b i l i t i e s embrace
Widdowson
linguistic
skills
reverse".25
i
From this statement we conclude that our
'comprehending'
skill may be one of the factors which
c o m p r e h e n s i o n , and the interpreting
acquired y e t .
26
students'
ability has not been
H o w e v e r , we are not entitled
students are not able to recognize
properly
to say that our
the role w h i c h words
groups of words may have as elements
discourse. Reading
is blocking
or
of a p a r t i c u l a r piece
depends on c o m p r e h e n d i n g
but
of
comprehending
does not imply the r e c o g n i t i o n of the s i g n i f i c a t i o n of a w r i t t e n
sentence
in the c o n t e x t of a p a r t i c u l a r
Widdowson claims that interpreting
piece of
discourse.
is not d e p e n d e n t
on
comprehending:
"you can c o m p r e h e n d the s i g n i f i c a t i o n
of
a
42
written sentence w i t h o u t recognizing w h a t it
counts as ir. the context of a particular
discourse".' 2 ' 7
piece of written
If interpreting
is c o n s i d e r e d as a non-reciprocal •ski 11 » also
defined as "the psychological
is not made overt through
process
physical
of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
or social
are bound to say that one of the practical
activity"20
and
material
to help students to interpret or to d e v e l o p that
ability is by means of developing
which
we
ways
interpreting
the c o m p r e h e n d i n g
skill;
we cannot g u e s s . w h a t is going on in our students' m i n d ,
palpable way to discover any possible
interpreting
interference
since
a
with
is just through an overt m a n i f e s t a t i o n such as the
one achieved by our students w h e n they read a text in a foreign.
language and are r e q u i r e d to write down an e q u i v a l e n t text in
their m o t h e r tongue.
I n t e r p r e t i n g , as W i d d o w s o n
puts
always remain an area where no direct and material
can be made, although he says, and we also a g r e e ,
interpreting
underlies all
incursion
that
language use, and it is also
c o n s i d e r e d , as we have already m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , the
level
it, will
highest
ski 11 .
As a pedagogical
s u g g e s t i o n W i d d o w s o n says
that
"language as use m i g h t m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y
taught by a s s o c i a t i n g
the teaching
language with other subjects
curriculum".
This means
"to a s s o c i a t e
operating
of
school
29
that w h a t has to be done
previously
in the
be
is
the c o m m u n i c a t i v e
related to language
on their
(students')
to the linguistic skills
VQ
foreign l a n g u a g e " .
abilities,
skills
own
language,
related to the
43
Assuming
that our students
have some problems with some of the
linguistic skills related to the foreign language,
association cannot be a c c o m p l i s h e d s u c c e s s f u l l y .
that our students
have acquired c o m m u n i c a t i v e
that
If we
assume
abilities
their own language, W i d d o w s o n suggests that teachers
in
should
"remove these abilities from a d e p e n d e n c e
linguistic skills in the m o t h e r tongue
associate
them with
linguistic skills
foreign language. We thereby
(without m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g )
learning n o t a s
in the
foreign
language
the acqui siti on of abilities
of the
that have already been a c q u i r e d
a different means of
Since this transference
and
represent
which, are new but as the transference
abilities
on
expression".
implies an a s s o c i a t i o n of
into
32
communicative
a b i l i t i e s , already a c q u i r e d , w i t h linguistic skills in a foreign
language, English ngps may be one of the factors which have
blocking
the t r a n s f e r e n c e , for
'comprehending'
linguistic skills where our students
students have dealt w i t h English ngps
is one of
been
the
need some help. The way
in the texts w h i c h
our
they
translated into Portuguese has proved that ngps are an aspect
of the
'comprehending'
skill which needs special
Although we recognize
the psychological
the importance of
processes which take place
attention.
describing
in reading, we are
inclined to view reading as one of the w e l l - k n o w n
language
to be practised in c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n s . At present,
circumstances under which reading
skills
the
is a c h i e v e d in EL I Course are
rather different, since one of the purposes in these courses
to develop the students' ability
in English. Thus, c o m p r e h e n s i o n
product of readi ng.
to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t they
is to be seën as the
final
is
read
44
To a p p r e h e n d the meaning
is a.means of coming
c o m p r e h e n s i o n ; we can only a p p r e h e n d that which
to w h a t we know. The actual
the ability
comprehension
to associate groups
is
to
connected
of a text
requires
of w o r d s , grammatical
ideas or facts implicit in what has been e x p r e s s e d .
structures,
Therefore,
if our students are not wel 1 -acquain.ted w i t h certain types
groups of words and the structural
groups, c o m p r e h e n s i o n c a n n o t be
elements which make up those
attained.
The fact that m o s t of our s t u d e n t s p r e s u m a b l y
the subject being dealt with in a technical
be an i n s u f f i c i e n t factor to overcome
know
text has proved to
the linguistic difficulties
posed by their poor knowledge of E n g l i s h ; h o w e v e r , as we
m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , in chapter
their inability
'2,
of
to interpret w h a t has been t r a n s m i t t e d in those
grafic information a v a i l a b l e
in those
If we assume that there
part, his ability
to read depends
efficient interaction between his
useful
texts.
is m o t i v a t i o n on the
reader's
to a g r e a t e x t e n t on an
linguistic knowledge and his
the w o r l d . If one of those types of k n o w l e d g e
poor, reading may be reduced just to the r e c o g n i t i o n of
letters, if they belong
3.2. The psychological
to the roman a l p h a b e t i c
processes
Seeing reading
of receptive
as r e c e p t i v e
c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Firstly he states
is
the
script.
behaviour
performance
lists some of the processes which t h e o r e t i c a l l y
which
have
m o s t students are aware
English texts, because they are not able to decode some
knowledge.of
of
that r e c o g n i t i o n
Corder
aim
22
at
is the
process
45
"extends beyond
the level
of sounds, intonation
patterns and rhythms of language
to groups
sounds or lexical
words. We also
object-hypotheses
of words and perhaps
store
groups
of words which habitually occur together".
Such a recognition becomes possible speaking
of
33
linguistically
- because
"the sentence of a language can be
in terms of a finite set of
means
that we m u s t use
lists".
This economical
described
'rules'...
This
'rules' rather
than
34
way is the one by which we are able to
sentences since it takes the least possible
'mental'
recognize
storage
space.
The next phase concerns
sampling
"the incoming
data
and, on the basis of our s a m p l i n g , predict the structure of the
utterance and act a c c o r d i n g l y " .
or p r e d i c t , is a fundamental
learning, and it is said to
35
skill
This ability
to
anticipate,
in language use and
language
comprise
"a very big part of w h a t we have
called
linguistic c o m p e t e n c e . . . And any ability
a n t i c i p a t e or predict
is based on a knowledge
of rules. That is why language
'rule-governed' b e h a v i o u r " .
Thus, we need to internalize
to
the grammatical
is often
called
36
and the
lexical
rules; the latter have to do with the semantic s t r u c t u r e of the
language.
"Identification
recognizing
is*^therefore)
u t t e r a n c e s as g r a m m a t i c a l l y
semantically wel1-formed".
Understanding
the process
is the psychological
and
37
process which
presupposes
identification. Besides the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of u t t e r a n c e s
as
of
46
well-formed according
also
to the rules of the language,
understanding
involves the perception of the function of the utterance
its context; it
involves
" 'understanding'
the situation as w e l l , and
this relates the understanding
tó an understanding
It is in the psychological
of the
of
language
world".
processes of
35
identification
that we might tackle a probable cause of our students' errors
their interpretation
of English ngps, for it is
"With g r a m a t i c a l / s e m a n t i c
rules and
Since understanding
competence,
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , the former
understanding
makes most of them conscious
in contexts which are familiar to
some
other
of the situation
of the errors
cannot
the scale of
processes of receptive b e h a v i o u r . On the
We m i g h t assume
formation
acceptability".
presupposes
hand, it is our students'
in
connected
be attained if there is some sort of blockage along
psychological
in
that
that they have made
them.
that they nave failed in
'rules' related to the f o r m a t i o n of English
stage of the process of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
in their
internalizing
ngps at
the
receptive
foreign language p e r f o r m a n c e . This failure m i g h t be due to
their m o t h e r - t o n g u e
interference c o n c e r n i n g , in this
case, the order of the structural
elements of English
since in P o r t u g u e s e , the sequence of those elements
follows a d i f f e r e n t order or
ngps,
usually
arrangement.
"The a s s u m p t i o n ,
then, is that some of
rules they already
language. This
of the
is what is m e a n t by
second
'transfer1;
transfer w h a t they already know
performing
one task
the
know are also used in the
production and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
learners
particular
to performing
about
another or
47
-
40
similar task".
This transference, as Corder calls
in the interpretation
it, may cause the errors
of English ngps; most of our
continued to apply the m o t h e r - t o n g u e
needed. In translating
EDUCATIONAL
interpreted the exponent of h - POLICY
students
rules where new ones
POLICY
made
were
(TIC) two
students
- as being the
exponent
of (q) in their t r a n s l a t i o n . Thus, the English ngp
EDUCATIONAL
m
POL ICY became
' educação
h
pol Tti ca ' , by one student, and .' educação
h
q
h
pol i ci al ' by the other student. On this a c c o u n t what" has to be
q
learned is what is d i f f e r e n t between
foreign
language.
the m o t h e r tongue and the
41
After having pointed out the complex
psychological
processes of receptive b e h a v i o u r , we c o n s i d e r the
of
description
'reading comprehensi on' a task to be p e r f o r m e d not only by
psychologists
but also by experts
c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Devising all
processes of receptive
in various fields of
the stages
in the
human
hierarchical
b e h a v i o u r , Corder states
that
"it is v i r t u a l l y impossible to decide
1
understanding'
linguistic
(and ideation) are
processes
To sum up, reading
specifically
or not... They have
y e t been even p r o v i s i o n a l l y
psychological
whether
theory".
42
defined
not
in any
.
c o m p r e h e n s i o n does not
belong
entirely to the field of applied l i n g u i s t i c s , and more specifically
to language teaching. The foreign language teacher's contribution
has been stated as
follows:
"he works on the principle
(the
that w h a t
they
l e a r n e r s ) want to say can be said in the
48
target 1anguage".
As this work proposes a practical
42
c o n t r i b u t i o n to EL I Course
in their treatment of a linguistic area which has proved to be
difficult for m o s t of our s t u d e n t s , a profound
concerning
the nature of 'comprehension'
exploration
is far from being
our
objective.
At no m o m e n t have we tried to limit or overlook
complexity w h i c h involves reading and c o m p r e h e n s i o n
As we consider c o m p r e h e n s i o n , from a practical
the
ultimate purpose
in detecting
in EL I Course,
with c o m p r e h e n s i o n
we have been
in the process of reading
Foss and Hakes
to c o m p r e h e n s i o n :
44
distinguish
a) and
In
a) the a p p r e h e n s i o n of lexical
a) the sentence
engaged
texts.
three phases as
related
content;
c) an
b) in a structure of pragmatic and
representation.
view,
interfering
English
the a p p r e h e n s i o n of syntactic s t r u c t u r e , and
of
as a whole.
point of
one of the problems which have been
the
b)
integration
semantic
is the stimulus to
recall
the information a b o u t the semantic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of the w o r d ;
this phase is followed by the a p p r e h e n s i o n of the
syntactic
structure where the lexical
items lie.
inferences based on g r a p h i c and lexical
stands for the mental
in
a) a nd
representation
b) results
from
representati ons ;
.c}
of w h a t has been apprehended
b).
A p p r e h e n s i o n may also be d e s c r i b e d as
three levels:
signification;
a) structural
signification;
c) motivational
b}
signification.
comprising
intentional
Structural
signification involves p r o p o s i t i o n s and depends
on
structure and lexical
relevant
content.
information is not explicit
So far, all
in the text.
the
syntactic
Intentional
signification
49
involves requests, which are not n e c e s s a r i l y
utterance;
it requires
inference whose r e s u l t a n t
be 'presupposed s i g n i f i c a t i o n ' ;
literal
involved in
might
the sentence w o u l d give us the
signification only. Motivational
a choice, from the a d d r e s s e r ' s
label
the
signification
involves
part, w h i c h led him to a certain
type of utterance. This c h o i c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , m i g h t be based on
differences of social
Assuming
status.
that c o m p r e h e n s i o n
is the product of these
three processes as a w h o l e , we may say that our
students•have
not even been able to a p p r e h e n d w h a t is e x p l i c i t in the
or its literal
or presupposed.
signification,
If there
not to m e n t i o n w h a t is
is any m i s a p p r e h e n s i o n
these phases related to c o m p r e h e n s i o n ,
c o m p r e h e n s i o n as a whole cannot be
text,
implicit
in one
of
it is implicit
that
accomplished.
From all the lines of thought w h i c h have
been
m e n t i o n e d above, we m i g h t devise an i l l u s t r a t i o n of the
and processes which are involved in the reading
of
factors
texts;
decoding would be the top of a scale w h i c h m i g h t be reached by
means of the a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e s
vocabulary, together with the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the
and
cohesive
links and ideas t r a n s m i t t e d in the text. The students' background
and strategies
would influence the a p p r e h e n d i n g
and
processes which w o u l d comprise
the decoding
difficulty posed by s t r u c t u r e ,
for i n s t a n c e , w o u l d
interfere with the whole
process of
interpreting
process.
decoding.
Any
certainly
50
Since our students are not able to identify
structural
elements of English ngps, c o n s e q u e n t l y
able to understand w h a t they read in their English
the
they are not
texts.
If a p r e h e n s i ó n of syntactic s t r u c t u r e , according
Foss and Hakes, is a prerequisite
with a p p r e h e n s i o n of lexical
for the
to
integration of. this
c o n t e n t , then inability
to
identify
the headword and its c o n c o m i t a n t m o d i f i e r s m u s t be a main factor
of interference
in reading
In chapter
5
comprehension.
we shall
present examples of how
51
students' problems were involved
those problems have affected
in ngp s t r u c t u r e , and
how
comprehension.
T r a n s l a t i o n , as one of the usual
techniques
applied
in EL I c l a s s e s , has been used in this d i s s e r t a t i o n as a means
of detecting
some problems posed by ngps and the
interference with
comprehension.
consequent
52
MOTES
7
CARVER, David. Reading comprehension.
Is there such a
thing? English Language Teaching Journal, 32 (4): 291-7, July,
1978.
2
1 5 i d . p.294.
S
Ibid.
^GARDNER, Keith. Reading comprehension.
COUNCIL. English Teaching
In: B R I T I S H ,
Information Centre. The teaching
of
comprehens i on. London, 1 978. p.68.
i
5
1 b i d.
*Ibid.
7
;
1 b i d. p.70.
*Ibid.
p.80.
5
p.75.
Ibid.
^Ibid.
11
SLOANE, R.J. A skill-based approach to the
lesson.
comprehensive
IATEFL Newsletter, (65):44-7 Oct.1980. See also
Michael. Reading comprehension
A paper given at the National
in English for academic
ras'. Nov. 1980 p.2. (unpublished
em Universidades
of the
Brasiles
material).
p.44-5.
73
SIMONS, Herbert D. Linguistic skills and
comprehension.
purposes.
Conference of Coordinators
'Projeto Ensino de Ingles Instrumental
^SLOANE,
SCOTT,
In: WILSON, Lois
Irene. Reading
reading
in ESOL
classroom:
a technique for teaching syntactic meaning. TESOL Quarterly
2
(3) : 260 .
14
CORDER, S. Pit. Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth
Pengu in, 1973. p.71. "The psychologist
relations between the formal
is concerned with the
system of language
(the code), and
53
the conceptual
system
(or c o g n i t i v e
structure)
of the
individual
i. e. l a n g u a g e as a s y m b o l i c s y s t e m " . .
15
lb\d.
p.113.
16
Ibid.
p.115. C o r d e r a l w a y s
w h i c h stands for our
17
Ibid.
'foreign
refers
language'
1
to
concept
second 1 a n g u a g e '
in this
work.
p. 116.
18'
W I D D O W S O N , H. G. T e a c h i n g
l a n g u a g e as
communication..
O x f o r d , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 8 . p.61.
7o
Ibid. p.58. He i l l u s t r a t e s the d i s t i n c t i o n s
speaks as usage verb and as a use v e r b , w i t h some
She speaks
examples
c l e a r l y or She s p e a k s
he is using
which language
marital
manner
difficulties'
in w h i c h l a n g u a g e
20
2i
is using
in
to refer to the m a n n e r
'She s peaks
the
frankly about
term to r e f e r
is r e a l i z e d as
to
in:
these
in
her
the
communication.
lb id. p. 6 3
Ibid.
22
"
he
in
examples
s l o w l y and d i s t i n c t l y ;
the term s peak
is m a n i f e s t e d ;
between
I b i d.
p.64.
23
Ibid.
p.66.
24
1 b i d.
p.67
25
Ibi d.
P fí
Ibid. For W i d d o w s o n
linguistic
skills
hearing, composing
and c o m p r e h e n d i n g ;
w h i c h the l a n g u a g e
system
abilities
s a y i n g , lis t e n i n g , w r i t i n g ,
comprise
corresponding
2?
Ibid.
2S
Ibid.
those r e f e r
is m a n i f e s t e d
as u s a g e ;
and i n t e r p r e t i n g , which' have
system is r e a l i z e d
as
p>66.
use.
comprise
speaking
to the way
in
communicative
rea di ng , t a l k i n g ,
to do w i t h how
the
54
29
Ibid.
p.74.
^Ibid.
Ibid.
22
Ibi d. p ; 11 5-6 .
33
Ibid.
p.119.
"ibid.
25
Ibi d.
p.120.
Si?
Ibid.
p.121.
2 7
1 b i d.
Sß
Ibid.
p.122.
S9
Ibid.
p.123.
4£?
Ibid.
•
p.132.
41
We have m e n t i o n e d
the types of e r r o r s
the
problem
t h a t we have a n a l y s e d
w b t t y p e , that is to say, these
boundaries
replace
of the E n g l i s h
ones
of h in the E n g l i s h
in the P o r t u g u e s e
translation
the same
m i g h t have
'educacional'
equivalent
'política
h
C0RDER,
c o m p r e h e n s i on.
is
identified
of
the
the
to
the
the
not i d e n t i f y
the a d e q u a t e
message
the
class-shift;
headword
the
ngp has become. t.he e x p o n e n t of
(q)
r e n d e r e d by t h o s e students., i ns tead
headword
'política'
p e r f o r m a c l a s s - s h i f t at (m) to (q)
á2
have
e l e m e n t s in a ngp by
they could
of the E n g l i s h ngp and p e r f o r m
of m a i n t a i n i n g
in this work
in P o r t u g u e s e . T h e y have a l t e r e d
c o n v e y e d in that ngp b e c a u s e
exponent
students
1. One
ngp b u t they h a v e not b e e n a b l e
the E n g l i s h s t r u c t u r a l
equivalent
in c h a p t e r
operating
in P o r t u g u e s e
in P o r t u g u e s e ,
at (q)
in the
and
so t h a t we
Portuguese
educacional'.
q
p . 1 2 5 - 6 . Here we have e q u a t e
u n d e r s ta ndi ng w i t h
55
4S
I b i d . p.126. We want to make
language'
it clear that
'target
in this work c o n c e r n s , in fact, our students'
tongue, into which
students have t r a n s l a t e d
English
mother
texts;
English is, then, the source l a n g u a g e , and Portuguese, the
language. This, h o w e v e r , does not i n v a l i d a t e Corder's
quoted
target
statement
above.
44
F 0 S S , Donald J. & HAKES, David T. Psycholinguis ti cs :
an introduction
to the psychology of language. Englewood
Prentice Hall, 1978.
p.99-101.
Cliffs,
56
CHAPTER 4
T H E VALUE OF T R A N S L A T I O N A S A T E S T I N G
INSTRUMENT
It has already been noted that translation plays
substantial role in the teaching
the students are studying
those of a normal
than
course.
procedure
is for the teacher to read
the texts, which are normally related in a general
students' main d i s c i p l i n e s , drawing a t t e n t i o n
vocabulary
UFPB,where
English as a means to other ends
Humanities
The usual
of EL I classes at the
a
to
through
way to the
difficult
items and points of g r a m m a r , after which the
students
are divided into groups to make a t r a n s l a t i o n of the text.
teacher is then able to go from group to group offering
where
The
help
necessary.
As the whole purpose of this d i s s e r t a t i o n
the errors that s t u d e n t s
is to
tend to make in this kind of
examine
translation
-exercise, it is perhaps necessary to justify the use of
translation in this w a y . Since the days of the reaction
the
Grammar-Translation
approach to teaching
languages,
word translation has itself come into disrepute
to be defended
against
the
and thus may need
here.
No one is inclined to s u p p o r t G r a m m a r - T r a n s l a t i o n
as
a teaching method these days, but the use of translation as an
evaluation procedure is a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . There are of
many reasons for testing
emphasizes several
objective
and various ways of doing
a s p e c t s . He notes
tests are usually
"grammatical
that, for
intended to measure
competence rather than his global
it.
course,
Corder 2
instance,
the
learner's
communicative
57
ability."2
to assess
Subjective
tests, on the other hand, are
"the a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s
intended
3
of the use of the language,"
he suggests, while pointing out that "appropriateness
yet be reduced to rules and consequently
cannot
judgements about it are
necessarily subjective." 4
A g a i n , tests may be c a t e g o r i z e d according
to a
specific purpose. A c h i e v e m e n t tests, Proficiency tests,
tests, Placement tests and Diagnostic
more
Aptitude
tests all have their own
particular v a l i d i t y , and it is the last of these w i t h which we
are concerned. We want to know the areas
in which our
students
are regularly having difficul ty. At the UFPB we.have noted that one
of these areas
is in c o m p r e h e n s i o n of w r i t t e n texts
associated
with the students' own d i s c i p l i n e s , so we require a testing
instrument that will
indicate exactly w h e r e the d i f f i c u l t y
lies.
Comprehension is a broad category and there are a number of
methods of testing
it. Cloze p r o c e d u r e , for e x a m p l e , which
operates by the deletion of every (e.g.) 5th word from a text,
can be used to measure
the students'
ability to infer w h a t the
missing words are by reference to the context. The
limitations
of this a p p r o a c h , for our purposes at least, are pointed out by
Raphael
Gefen:
"The only limitation at the m o m e n t . . . is that
the missing
item is still
at word level
no higher; to omit longer units such
phrases w o u l d introduce
in the objective
too many
Cor at least
and
as
complications
'agreed')
scoring of a foreign language test."
5
The students' knowledge of how two or more words may come
together
to form a ngp w o u l d be only rarely tested by this p r o c e d u r e ,
we are, of course, c o n c e r n e d with ngps of two or m o r e
words.
and
58
Similarly, Information T r a n s f e r e x e r c i s e s , True
or
False q u e s t i o n s , Column Matching and so on are all
acceptable
ways of testing
the context
types of c o m p r e h e n s i o n , but w i t h i n
the UFPB courses, they are inadequate. They do not offer
kind of on-going
d i a g n o s t i c type of testing
that we
Translation, on the other hand, goes a good deal
towards providing
of
the
require.
of the way
this.
We must accept that in what is, after all, an ESP
situation, there is bound to be a mix of interests
and
skills.
Basically the students are interested in the c o n t e n t , while
teacher is primarily c o n c e r n e d w i t h teaching the l a n g u a g e ;
student also tends to know more about the c o n t e n t than
teacher, except at the very s i m p l e s t l e v e l s , and the
the
the
the
teacher
obviously
is more c o n f i d e n t w i t h the language. This reveal s itself
at
UFPB in several
the
the translations
ways. Many students are aware
that
they have made do not r e f l e c t w h a t they
to be true of the content of the text or their
know
background
knowledge of the d i s c i p l i n e . At the same time they tend to
translate the words in linear sequence
in many cases.
Surely
there is a basis here for d i s c u s s i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p
the true content of the passage and the l i n g u i s t i c
between
realization
of it.
The advantages
instrument seem to us to
or translation as a d i a g n o s t i c
include:
a) it gives the teacher a clear view of those
requiring remedial
b) even
testing
areas
work;
if the teacher's
knowledge
of the
specific
subject is limited, his f a m i l i a r i t y with the language will
him to pinpoint such d i f f i c u l t i e s
as those related to the
enable
59
identification
of the structural
elements
in a ngp;
c) students are not able to avoid difficult areas
grammar -as it is claimed they can do in s u b j e c t i v e
- since they are committed to an a u t h e n t i c
language in its entirety.
Even omissions
tests
of
6
piece of written
in a t r a n s l a t e d
can be useful, as they point to areas of difficulty
text
in their
own way.
We must not lose the sight of the fact, e i t h e r ,
translation as used at the UFPB is by.no m e a n s an
activity.7
involves
It is also useful
unsupported
to remember that
translation
the use of m o t h e r tongue by both students and
and as both are normally n o n - n a t i v e
of the more difficult aspects
language teacher.will
still
Nevertheless,
types of e r r o r s .
that e v a l u a t i o n
is an
part of teaching. There is often a need for s u m m a t i v e ,
course, e v a l u a t i o n , as a means of e s t a b l i s h i n g
t e c h n i q u e s , course b o o k s ,
that we can employ t h r o u g h o u t
problems.
the content and the content
the course
for our
purpose.
integral
end-ofor
concern.
evaluation
as a way of m o n i t o r i n g
If the purpose of an activity
in turn affects the
affects
techniques
e m p l o y e d , then translation w o u l d seem to be the m o s t
technique
8
students
What we require is some form of o n - g o i n g , f o r m a t i v e
language
concepts
the success
themselves, and so on; but this is not our primary
specific
the
of translation at the U F P B , then, may
be summed up as follows. We feel
otherwise of teaching
discuss'.ion
need to-be familiar w i t h the
necessary to assess and isolate s p e c i f i c
Our j u s t i f i c a t i o n
teacher,
speakers of English
is f a c i l i t a t e d .
that
suitable
60
MOTES
^CORDER, S. Pit. Introducing
applied
H a r d m o n d s w o r t h Penguin E d u c a t i o n , 1973.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
4
I b i d.
linguistics.
p.358.
5
GEFEN, Raphael. An e x p e r i m e n t w i t h cloze procedure.
In:
English Language Teaching J o u r n a l , London , _33(2) : 1 22-6 . Jan. 1979
p.125-6.
6
C0RDER,
p.367-8.
^Translation is usually followed by other types
e x e r c i s e s , mainly objective
ones, and it is amazing
students manage to give c o r r e c t answers
of
to see how
(provided the tests are
to be answered in English but not in P o r t u g u e s e ) ; so far, the
conclusion most teachers have drawn from this fact is
that
students know how and where to find the answers in the
even if some or most of them feel
text,
insecure as to the message
they have got from the text. Here, once m o r e , one feels the
for more and other types
real
of testing
instruments
need
to elucidate
the
problems and d i f f i c u l t i e s ; our students should not be
encouraged to find the answer in the text and simply
re-copy
them in the spaces left in any e x e r c i s e , or simply to
pretend
that they are able to answer some q u e s t i o n s , based on the
text,
by re-copying whole s e n t e n c e s , or even clauses exactly
they
are in the text.
Instead, some students
their answers in Portuguese
students'
understanding
are asked to
so that teachers
of the
as
provide
can better e.valuate
text.
8
In dealing with the translation of English texts
are also expected to be familiar w i t h the concept of
devised by C a t f o r d , in C A T F O R D , J.C. A linguistic
trar.s 1 ati on. London, Oxford University
the concept of t r a n s p o s i t i o n according
teachers
'shifts' as
theory
of
Press, 1 965 . p . 7 3 - 8 2 , and
to A Y O R A , Gerardo
Vazquez.
61
Introducción a la traductologia. Washington»
University
D.C.,
Georgetown
Press, 1 977. p. 266-89 , and by VINAY, 0. P. & DARBELNET,
J. Stylistique
comparee du français et de l'anglais. Paris, Didier,
1972, p.96-101. According
to these authors a class of words in a
language may be replaced by other class of words in another
language without any interference with the meaning. This can be
better understood if we try to translate HE SHELTERED
HIS
CIGARETTE WITH HIS CUPPED HAND or HE MERELY NODDED into
We have been aware of the possible shifts
Portuguese.
in translation so as to
avoid marking a m i s t a k e , or an error where there is not one. In
text number 9 (T9P) administered to the Physics Group, we have the
ngp DUSTY ROOM which has been translated as'( na) poei ra da sala'by
m
h
h
some students, an example of transposition in which the modifier
DUSTY operates at h in its equivalent Portuguese ngp, without
interfering with comprehension; an adjective
in English has been
replaced by a noun in Portuguese. Although the students who
managed to do this class-shift may have done so by guessing, or
just by following
the sequence of the elements in English and
achieved their translation into Portuguese w i t h o u t
interfering
, with comprehension quite by accident, we have born in mind that
the most important point is to verify whether that 'shift' has
changed the meaning of the ngp
which it has occurred.,
9
C0RDER,
p.360.
in relation to the context in
62
CHAPTER b
RESEARCH
5.1.
UNDERTAKEN
Procedure
To collect information about some problems
might be hampering
comprehension
of English
technical
studied by EL I students, we decided to make use of
as one of the most usual
Our choice
texts
translation
techniques e m p l o y e d in EL I Course,
of translation
give us the chance of finding
as the vehicle which
might
out some sorts of problems
faced
by EL I students was based on our c o l l e a g u e s '
experience with the rendered translations
as one of the parts
which
in EL I monthly
and our own
of some
tests. Those
paragraphs,
paragraphs
were taken from texts already studied in class and
usually
displayed a different a r r a n g e m e n t of c l a u s e s , or their
structural
elements, so that the rendered translations
did not result
mere copy of the translation made
Irrespective of the
fact that those short paragraphs
already
in class.
had been e x t r a c t e d
studied in c l a s s , some kinds of errors
In fact, translation
still
concern w h a t the
thinks to be d i f f i c u l t , e i t h e r grammatical
points or
or both; s t u d e n t s , in turn, may have their doubts
passages
of the whole
teachers
in the monthly
comments
teacher
vocabulary,
clarified
while they work on the text in g r o u p s , or w h e n their
checks the translation
texts
persisted.
in class has been preceded by some
on the text, however, those comments
Sometimes
from
in a
teacher
text.
include t r a n s l a t i o n of
unknown
tests. As those passages have not been
studied.in class, students
are allowed to c o n s u l t
dictionaries,
just as they do when they are working on a new text in c l a s s .
63
The results have shown that some
and the most common one
perceive
words.
Our main concern
has been to concentrate
our
research
posed by ngps as r e f l e c t e d in EL I students'
translations. The first step taken to gather actual
information about areas of difficulty
of comments on grammatical
the usual
points and v o c a b u l a r y
translation. The text was usually
and useful
in the t r a n s l a t i o n of texts
a d m i n i s t e r e d to EL I students was to change
sequence
followed by the
read by the teacher,
while students foil owed the reading
translating
occur,
is related to the way students
ngps formed by two or more
on the problems
types of errors still
aloud,
silently; then, they
started
the text, either in groups or in di vi dually. The
teacher's help was limited to "information concerning
the
translation of isolated w o r d s , that is to say, it equalled
the
same sort of help w h i c h students m i g h t get from a bilingual
dictionary. D i s a g r e e m e n t among the members
of a group as to a
certain aspect of t r a n s l a t i o n often occurred and as a result
members of the same group did.not always render
translations.
On several
different translations
occasions
one group rendered as many
as the number of members
After the groups
had finished their
they were handed to the teacher; each
of a group, usually provided
identical'
in that group.
translations,
s t u d e n t , or each
two copies of the same
so that one of them m i g h t be kept in the teacher's
The translation
translation
possession.
of the w h o l e text was followed by
comments on v o c a b u l a r y , grammatical
points, exercises
question?, devised to test students' c o m p r e h e n s i o n
and reinforce
member
some important grammatical
aspect.
and
of the
text
64
As the length of the texts translated v a r i e d , the exact
amount of time spent on each t r a n s l a t i o n could not be
however, the average was three texts a m o n t h .
In EL I Course
students have five classes a week and each class
minutes. .The total
number of classes
determined,
lasts
fifty
per s e m e s t e r is 75 in each
group.
At. the end of each month students did their
regular
monthly test, and, since we intended to gather enough
of the problems involved
in the translation
evidence
of English
texts,
one point was added to the number of points o b t a i n e d in the
monthly test. That was an attempt to keep them i n t e r e s t e d in
providing
the translations
regularly.
It is important
emphasize that students are not o b l i g e d to produce
translations
the
of every text studied in class; they are
to do so but not forced. They recognize
the procedures
to
translation
required
as one of
to be used in EL I C o u r s e , end they also
that in their monthly tests
they usually have
short passages as part of the e v a l u a t i o n
to
know
translate
process applied to EL
I Course groups .
Our decision
administered
to take t r a n s l a t i o n of the
in class rather than the short pieces of
required in monthly
tests
in order to comprise
research was due to two aspects:
translation
the corpus of our
f i r s t , the translations
texts w o u l d give us a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e
problems
texts
of the
view of the kinds of
posed by ngps than the limited possibilities
imposed
by the very length of the short passages to be t r a n s l a t e d
in
four monthly tests; m o r e o v e r , we w o u l d like to gather a relevant
number of results so that they m i g h t be e v a l u a t e d by
statistical
techniques; w i t h longer passages students m i g h t have
the .
65
opportunity
to infer the correct meaning
of a ngp' from a broader
number of clues provided by the text as a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d
the translations
achieved in monthly
to distorted results
tests sometimes
tests m i g h t also give
due to such factors as nervousness
cause in students w i t h resulting
ngps in an authentic
in EL I classroom
problems
situation:
of students
rise
which
interference
with their performance; second, the results of this
should reflect the actual
unit;
research
in relation
translation as. a usual
to
procedure
situation.
After reading
the translations
rendered by each
student, a selection of all ngps where errors had been made was
produced; under each ngp the wrong
translations
attributed
it were copied with the number of students who had made
to
them
beside each type of wrong -trans 1 ation. For e x a m p l e , in T7P we
had the ngp NATURAL UNITS which was t r a n s l a t e d
(... NO NOTION OF) NATURAL UNITS
1. (movimento)
natural
as:
(OF RADIANT ENERGY... )
de uniões
4 students
2. na tu rai s (movi mentos) d e u n i d a d e s
3students
3. (muda nça) na tu ral
4 students
de uni ões
4. junção natural
5. (energia
6. (noção)
1 student
radiante de) uma unidade
natural
(de energia
natural
9 students
radiante)
1 student
7. natureza de uniões
In numbers
1 student
1, 2, 3 and 6 we noticed that elements
ngp had been inserted; students
of another
had formed new ngps
in
Portuguese
using elements of the ngps which s u r r o u n d e d NATURAL UNITS.
had not m a i n t a i n e d the sequence
e l e m e n t s , namely
word-bound
of the English
structural
(m) and h, as one of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
translation
They
of the
type of error - referred to as wbt -
66
which we intended to detect in this research; only number 7
interested us because
it clearly
the English e x p o n e n t s , NATURAL=
besides
the student's
prepositional
showed the same sequence
'natureza' - UN ITS=
attempt to insert a
group - 'de uniões'
'uniões',
rankshifted
- where it was
completely
unnecessary. Numbers 4 and 5 were also ignored in this
since they did not reflect the interference
the English exponents with
of
research
of the sequence
the rendered t r a n s l a t i o n
of
into
Portuguese.
We have listed several
types of errors made
so that the problems involved in the t r a n s l a t i o n
might be considered as a fact; h o w e v e r , in this
those errors which show the interference
English ngp exponents
inadequate
and that same
in ngps
of English
research,
of the sequence
interference
plus
ngps
only
of
an
insertion of a r a n k s h i f t e d group, (irg) as in number 7
above, have served our
purposes.
5.2, Students and texts
Besides
applied
intending to find out w h e t h e r the
of wbt and i rg errors
incidence
in ngps was relevant in face of
other
types of e r r o r s , and w h e t h e r the length of ngps had any relation to
the number of those errors, we also needed to verify w h e t h e r
problems
posed by ngps were only r e s t r i c t e d
texts considered as n o n - s p e c i f i c
the
to certain types
to s t u d e n t s ' m a j o r
of
disciplines,
or whether the fact of dealing with texts related to their own
academic field w o u l d minimize
two groups of n e w l y - a d m i t t e d
those problems. Thus, we
undergraduates
chose
of d i f f e r e n t
areas: one of Nursing students and the other of Physics
academic
students. 1
67
The number of students e n r o l l e d in the Nursing
was 40, and 26 in the Physics
Group.
In the Nursing Group only
two students were not new
ones; they were both senior students who had not taken
their
EL I C o u r s e , yet. In the Physics Group all students had
done the university entrance
process
students
to form both
of e n r o l m e n t at the
EL I classes are usually formed by students sharing
of studies. In both groups
Their social, cultural
just
examination.
The selection of individual
groups was done by a normal
Group
UFPB.
the same
students were about the same
field
age.
and e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d has not been our
main concern here; as we m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , we took these two
of students just as the resultants
of the common process
groups
of
e n r o l m e n t ; our choice is related to their a c a d e m i c a r e a s , only.
It was a random choice as to their s o c i a l , cultural
background. The inclusion
and
of s t u d e n t s ' data concerning
ecomomic
their
background in our research w o u l d not have probably added any
relevant information as to s t u d e n t s ' performance
besides
that is commonly e x p e c t e d from those types of data:
belonging to a high or u p p e r - m i d d l e
generally perform
the one
students
class are the ones who
better.
During the s e m e s t e r in which
collected, the attendance
translations
were
of students who s u c c e e d e d in
their course was p r a c t i c a l l y
100%. In the Nursing
finishing
Group
38
students attended the whole course and only two students
out; in the Physics Group 24 students
two gave up well before
dropped
f i n i s h e d the course
the end of the s e m e s t e r . Thus,
while
the
translations made by those students who did not finish the
course
68
were not included In the ones which
form the corpus of our
research.
Besides
the common nervousness
which students
usually
show during the period in which they are o v e r l o a d e d by monthly
examinations
of other s u b j e c t s , the rhythm of the classes
always normal, and students'
was
interest in their EL I Course
activities may be c o n s i d e r e d as
satisfactory.
The Nursing Group m a n a g e d to t r a n s l a t e
texts while the Physics Group t r a n s l a t e d
14
specific
12 specific ones.
applying the specific texts both groups t r a n s l a t e d two
Before
non-specific
-texts so that the results obtained from the t r a n s l a t i o n of the
ngps in the latter might be compared w i t h the results
from the
obtained
former.
A l t h o u g h the specific texts for the Nursing Group were
different
in content and in v o c a b u l a r y
from the ones for the
Physics G r o u p , we assumed that the students'
knowledge
of the
subjects discussed in the specific ones w o u l d c o m p e n s a t e for some
probable
linguistic d i f f i c u l t y
so that a c o m p a r i s o n between
results obtained from specific and n o n - s p e c i f i c
made by means of statistical
possible
Nursing
discrepancies
tests to reveal
between the individual
students and Physics
the
texts could be
the degree of some
performance
of
ones.
Texts to be studied in EL I Course are established
the DLEM (Department of M o d e r n Foreign L a n g u a g e s ) which
provides
the copies to be d i s t r i b u t e d
of non-specific
to s t u d e n t s . The
texts before the s p e c i f i c
a means of introducing
by
also
application
ones is c o n s i d e r e d as
students to the p r o c e d u r e s
which
characterize EL I Course c l a s s e s , n a m e l y , the reading
of fairly
69
long p a s s a g e s , exploitation
of d i f f i c u l t
linguistic
translation of the text, w r i t t e n questions
comprehension
aspects,
to assess
students'
of the text and a few objective exercises
to test grammatical
subjects
designed for each
devised
text.
The n o n - s p e c i f i c t e x t s , here referred to as TC, were
studied by both groups at the beginning
of 1979. EDUCATION
of the first
semester
IN BRAZIL was the first to be a p p l i e d ;
it
was followed by RACE AND H E R E D I T Y , the second n o n - s p e c i f i c
to be
studied. Both texts, which were, laid down by the D L E M , dealt with
subjects which can be said to be known by students
area. Although RACE AND HEREDITY
the subject in itself fits
in with the biology
programme
of both n o n - s p e c i f i c
aspects,
which
examination.
texts can be
claimed, at least o p t i m i s t i c a l l y , to be included in the
high-school
academic
is c o n c e r n e d with g e n e t i c
students have to study for the u n i v e r s i t y entrance
In this w a y , the subjects
of any
students'
programme.
The specific texts a p p l i e d to the Nursing Group
14, and the order of their p r e s e n t a t i o n
1 . THE NERVOUS
in class was as
totalled
follows:
SYSTEM
2. LATEST IN HEALTH AND
MEDICINE
3. (No title; it can be referred to as LYMPH. D R A I N A G E
SYSTEM
text)
4. ACUTE RESPIRATORY
F A I L U R E ÇFrom C u r r e n t
Therapy,
1975 . Section 2 , p. 86).
5.
CYSTITIS
6. T R E A T M E N T OF ACUTE RENAL
7. LIVER AND BILIARY
8. BRONCHITIS
TRACK
(From-Merck
T h e r a p y , 1975.
FAILURE
p.1306).
Manual
of Diagnosis
and
70
9. HABITUAL ABORTION
10. PLACENTA
PREVIA
11. PYELONEPHRITIS
12. ACUTE RENAL
13.
(From Current T h e r a p y , 1975 . p.716)
(From Current T h e r a p y , 1975
p.480)
FAILURE
DYSPEPSIA
14. CALCULI
2
The content of all
Nursing students' subjects
those texts was
related to the
of some disciplines
that they were
taking that semester. This fact was c o n f i r m e d by some
students
of that group when they were asked about their knowledge
of the
subject dealt with in those texts; students
first
university semester at the Medical
School
taking
their
study the systems
the human body. H o w e v e r , we are not sure w h e t h e r students
studying the pathology related to those systems
with the presentation
were
simultaneously
of the texts in class. We can only
that by the end of that s e m e s t e r m o s t problems concerning
topics of the texts should have already
of
been studied by
infer
the
those
students.
The general
in the English
impression was that the subjects
dealt
texts had not been d i s c u s s e d in their classes
of
pathology before or by the time of the p r e s e n t a t i o n of those
texts in EL I classes y e t . ß
The Physics Group t r a n s l a t e d twelve specific texts
the first semester of 1979. They were p r e s e n t e d in class
according
to the sequence
1. ELECTRIC
2. M A T E R I A L S
3. C O R R O S I O N
below:
MOTORS
~
in
4. CONCRETE
5. CAN LIFE EXIST ON THE PLANETS?
(Part one)
(From
chapter VII of THE UNIVERSE AROUND US, by Sir
James
Jeans , F.R.S . )
6. CAN LIFE EXIST ON THE PLANETS?
(Part
7. THE QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION
two)
(Part one)
(From
chapter VII of AN APPROACH TO MODERN PHYSICS
by
E.N. da C. Andrade)
8. THE QUANTUM THEORY
9. PARTICLES OR WAVES?
by James
OF RADIATION
(Part
two)
(From THE M Y S T E R I O U S
UNIVERSE
Jeans)
10. PARTICLES
11. T H E THEORY
OR WAVES?
(Part
OF CONTINUOUS
two)
CREATION
(From chapter V
of THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE by Fred
Hoyle)
12. ATOMIC RADIATION A N D LIFE (From chapter I of ATOMIC
RADIATION AND LIFE by Peter
Alexander).
From the titles of. the texts we can see that part of
them are linked to Physics. However, the contents
which are not directly
of the 'texts
linked to Physics can be said to belong
to the area of T e c h n o l o g y
in which
Physics
is included.
Indeed, texts are s e l e c t e d according
4
to the major
areas, Health and Technology, and this procedure a c c o u n t s
for
the diversity of content in the texts applied to students
several
courses in one
area.
Despite the Physics Group's open preference
specific to P h y s i c s , and their p r e s u p p o s e d knowledge
subject, wb t and i rg errors were
of texts as numbers
of
detected in the
for texts
of the
translations
7, 8, 9, 10 and 12, if we were to take
texts as the m o s t specific to P h y s i c s .
5
those
72
5.3. S p e c i f i c a t i o n of errors
5.3.1.
w b t type of error
As we have m e n t i o n e d on page 65 of this c h a p t e r , we
classified as
'word-bound
translation' error that which
the influence of the English structural
translation of English ngps
elements
into P o r t u g u e s e . By
translation' error we have referred mainly
the sequence
of the exponents
resulting new ngps
on the
rendered
'word-bound
to this
influence
class-shift5
of the wbt errors
by m a i n t a i n i n g
sequence of the exponents w i t h o u t a c c o m p l i s h i n g
shift of the structural
reflects
of
of English ngps with or w i t h o u t
in P o r t u g u e s e ; some
produced an incorrect
have
elements
the
have
same
the necessary
in the e q u i v a l e n t
"
Portuguese
ngp. For instance, in the translation of the ngp
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT, in T6P, into
'físico ambie_n
'física a m b i e n t a l ' and
tal' the translation e q u i v a l e n t of the English adjective
operating at e in the delicacy scale of (m)
by
'físico' and 'física' operating
ngps
'fis i ca ambiental' and
h
was found
(q)
h
Portuguese
procedure
(q)
in:
8
1
'normal
h
I
eventual '
h
.
i
F
» ELECTRIC CHARGE t r a n s l a t e d as
(m)
translated
'físi co ambi enta 1' ; the same
I
1. NORMAL EVENT t r a n s l a t e d as
2
has been
at h in the rendered
~
(m)
7
PHYSICAL,
h
(T6P)
(q).
— »
'eletricidade
h
I
carregada '
Cq)
(J?P).
73
r
—
3. TISSUE INJURY translated as
1
'teci do ofendido'
h
(T6N)
tq)
teci do prejudi cado
h
(q)
tecido mal
h
(q)
I
4. PRONOUNCED RENAL DAMAGE translated as 'locutor renal danificado'
Cm)
5. ASCENDING
(m)
h
INFECTION t r a n s l a t e d as
(m)
(q)
h
(T6N)
(q)
'ascendendo
infecção'
V
(q)
h
(T5N) 5
i
6. RECURRING A T T A C K S
(m)
translated as
'recorrendo
ataques'
V
h
h
(TßN)
In the examples a b o v e , the n e c e s s i t y for c l a s s - s h i f t was
not
perceived by our students.
seen
In these few examples we have
that they have not been able to identify
the structural
elements
(m) and h of an English ngp which require a shift from (m)
to h (q) to expound an e q u i v a l e n t Portuguese
h
ngp. At (m) we have
seen some types of a d j e c t i v e s which operate at a finer scale as
exponents of e and x \ . 1 0
In numbers 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 we
NORMAL, E L E C T R I C , P R O N O U N C E D , A S C E N D I N G and R E C U R R I N G
have
as
exponents of e, and TISSUE as the e x p o n e n t of n. In their
Portuguese equivalents
they are all
operating
at h, except for
numbers 5 and 6 where A S C E N D I N G and R E C U R R I N G have
been
translated as an exponent of a verbal
'ascendendo'
group. Thus,
74
and
' r e c o r r e n d o 1 , which have been translated at m o r p h e m e - b o u n d
rank, reflect students'
limited knowledge of - i ng form as the
only exponent of v in a verbal
"non-finite
verbs are found in several
outside verbal
operating
EMPTYING
shows.
group. They do not know
structural
that
group. They do not recognize an - i n g form
at (m), or at h, as the t r a n s l a t i o n of NORMAL
in T5N, into
'bexiga normal
despejando/
11
places"
either
BLADDER
esgotando'
12
Besides giving rise to strange and sometimes
forms in Portuguese
deviant
in face of the t r a n s l a t i o n of the whole
sentence where these ngps are inserted, errors like those
numbers 5 and 6 are evidence of the existing
tendency
in
to
translate at w o r k - r a n k . M o r p h e m e - b o u n d translations may be said
to form one extreme of a scale if we were to produce
classification
a scaling
of errors which concern this r e s e a r c h .
It is
important to say that numbers 5 and 6 were counted up as wbt
errors hecause
'ascendendo' and
'recorrendo' were not
to any other group either preceding
one of the structural
form, or - e d
elements
or following
linked
them;
in a ngp which expounds an -ing
form, is t r a n s l a t e d as one of the
structural
elements of another group w h i c h precedes or follows that
the resultant translation
type, as we shall
when
is not included in the w b t
explain the types of errors made
ngp,
error
in the
translation of EXPOSED M E T A L S , in the d e s c r i p t i o n of errors
ignored in this
In the
an inversion
research.
translation of the English ngps b e l o w ,
in the sequence of their structural
get to their equivalents
to say, a shift from
elements
only
to
in Portuguese was n e c e s s a r y ; that is.
(m) h (modifier plus headword)
to h
(_q)_
75
(headword plus q u a l i f i e r ) . Thus, NORMAL EVENT in T6P
have been translated
NORMAL
should
as
EVENT
Cm)
h
ocorrência
just
(q)
normal
like:
TISSUE
INJURY
(m)
h
lesão
.h
Cq)
tecidual
PRONOUNCED RENAL
Cm)
h
lesao
Cm)
Cq)
renal
ASCENDING
^ h
Cq)
acentuada
INFECTION
(ID)
V
"
infecção
(q)
ascendente
RECURRING
ATTACKS
(m)
h
h'
ataques
DAMAGE
(q)
recorrentes
The translation of some ngps, as THIS LATTER PART
not require a c l a s s - s h i f t ; LATTER also operates
Portuguese
equivalent
'segunda' or
'última'.
(TlOP)
does
at (m) in its
76
THIS
LATTER
Cm)
I
PART
(m)
I
h
I
'esta segunda
Cm)
parte'
Cm)
h
However, its rendered translation
into
'esta mais
tardia
parte'
has interfered with the meaning conveyed by the English
of that ngp, due to formal
in English: LATTER and
5.3.2 .
exponents
similarity between two lexical
LATER.
i rg type of error
This type of error refers to the influence of
structural
items
English
elements of a ngp on its e q u i v a l e n t ngp in Portuguese,
together with an inadequate
insertion of a r a n k s h i f t e d
group.
For instance, in the t r a n s l a t i o n of INFECTIOUS VIRUS, in T2N,
into
I
INFECTIOUS VIRUS
Cm)
1
infecção de virus
h
h
14
h]
N
I
h
we have
'infecção' operating
at h a n d
as the object of a p r e p o s i t i o n ,
rankshifted prepositional
'virus' operating
'de' ;^ 5
'de virus'
group operating at
at h in the ngp
It is important to e m p h a s i z e
is
[q]
a
[q] . In 'de virus'
we have a preposition and its object - virus - which
by a noun (N) operating
at
is e x p o u n d e d
'virus'.
that, like in w b t
the influence of the English exponents was felt in the
errors,
rendered
translation; m o r e o v e r , that insertion of a r a n k s h i f t e d group may
77
be seen as a transitory
the necessary
stage between w o r d - b o u n d
insertion of a r a n k s h i f t e d group in the
of a ngp into Portuguese.
insertions
where an insertion
elements
of an English
is actually n e c e s s a r y as well
that which
as where
is inadequate but necessary
ngp,
place
it is
of the ngps below show two
Portuguese e q u i v a l e n t , and that which
well
translation
of a r a n k s h i f t e d group have taken
not necessary. The translations
of insertions:
and
However, since students are not sure
as to how to deal with the structural
inadequate
translation
in.
types
its
is inadequate as well
as
as u n n e c e s s a r y . We m i g h t say that errors of this kind would
form the other end of the scale w h i c h was m e n t i o n e d on page
of this chapter.
Students who have made
i rg errors seem to be
somewhat aware of the n e c e s s i t y . o f the insertion of
groups
in dealing with
the
which require that insertion
translation
rankshifted
of those English
ngps
in some e q u i v a l e n t P o r t u g u e s e
i) Inadequate and u n n e c e s s a r y
74
ngps.
i n s e r t i o n of a rankshifted
group at h in English ngps, and at q in its e q u i v a l e n t ngp in
Portuguese:
a. FEDERAL SCHOOL SYSTEM
m
(m)
h
I
1
(m)
(m)
PARTS
(m)
d « ROTATING
h
1
administração
h
-f
c. FEW MOVING
h
CYLINDER
h
escolas do sistema
(m)
b. A D M I N I S T R A T I V E A C T I V I T I E S
(m)
federais
[q]
I
das a t i v i d a d e s
h
[q]
pouco m o v i m e n t o
C«P)
de partes
h
rotação
*
(TIC)
(TIP)
[q]
de cilindros
[q]
(T4P)
(TIC)
78
ii) Inadequate
.an adequate one was
insertion of a rankshifted group where
necessary:
1
1
1
e. NORMAL BLADDER EMPTYING
m
(m)
h
h
I
^
f. TEACHING LAW
(m)
h
1
1
(m)
(m)
i
eficiência
h
1
1
- h
I
1
i. R A P I D L Y - M O V I N G
(m)
I
aço de arame
h
(m)
I
do calor perdido
h
h. STEEL WIRES
(m)
(TIC)
[q]
,
g. EFFICIENT HEAT LOSS
PARTICLE
h
(T5N)
[q]
,
|
ensino de leis
h
,
1
1
da bexiga vazia
1
normalidade
(T2C)
[q]
(T4P)
[q]
!
I
(um) rápido movimento de particula (T9P)
(m)
h
[q]
In a. b. c. and d. only the shift from (m).h to h(q) was
necessary,
except for the first m e x p o u n d e d by FEW, in FEW
MOVING PARTS, which occupies the same p o s i t i o n , at m in its
equivalent
Portuguese ngp; a. b. c. and d, could have been
translated
as:
a. FEDERAL SCHOOL
^
q
sistema escolar
b. A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
m
h
atividades
SYSTEM
q
federal
ACTIVITIES
^ h
q
administrativas
79
c. FEW .MOVING
PARTS
m
m
" h
m
h
q
poucas partes
d. ROTATING
moveis
CYLINDER
m
,
h
q
cilindro
rotativo
The translation cf e. f. g. h. and i. requires
the insertion
a rankshifted group; these m i g h t be t r a n s l a t e d
as:
e. NORMAL
BLADDER
m.
in
h
q
of
EMPTYING
[q]
esvaziamento normal da bexiga
f. TEACHING
m
LAW
^h
[<ü
lei do ensino
g. EFFICIENT HEAT
m
-
LOSS
m
I
h
X
m
h
[q]
eficiente perda de calor
h. STEEL
WIRES
m
X
h
[1]
arames de aço
The translation of i. would require e i t h e r a r a n k s h i f t e d
or a rankshifted clause at q» as we shall
group
i l l u s t r a t e b e l o w , on
80
page
81, where a n o t h e r type of t r a n s l a t i o n of the ngp
RAPIDLY-MOVING
(A)
PARTICLE has been s h o w n , in k.
In the errors c l a s s i f i e d as wbt o n e s , we have
found English ngps whose translation
into Portuguese
the insertion of a r a n k s h i f t e d g r o u p , besides
class-shift
(m)
IDEA
(m)
k. (A) R A P I D L Y - M O V I N G
(m)
(esta) grande golpeada
h
(m)
PAR ICLE
necessary
(m)
(m)
(m)
(TIC)
nova universidade ensinando lei
(m)
h
P
[q ]
/
I
\
0
I
N
V
(m)
h
—I
h
-" 1
1
i
m. UNIVERSITY TEACHING METHODS
(TUP)
h
(m)
(m)
idéia
(uma) ligeiramente movei partícula (T9P)
(m)
1. (A) NEW UNIVERSITY TEACHING LAW
(m)
requires
from (m) h to h (q).
-F
j. (THIS) BIG BANG
(m)
the
also
1
1
1
universidade ensinando métodos
h
h
/
P
-V
("TIC)
[q]
\
0
N
l
If we try to translate j. we see that there is the need for an
inclusion of a rankshifted group at q in the equ i val ent Portuguese
structure
h (q); in the rendered
translations
a b o v e , in j. and
k., r e s p e c t i v e l y , a student was able to recognize h in both
English ngps, but the sequence
in which he has p r e s e n t e d
the
81
structural
elements
misuse of the w o r d
in his Portuguese
t r a n s l a t i o n and the
' g o l p e a d a 1 , which cannot c o l l o c a t e
with
'ideia', have interfered with the meaning of that ngp. In k.
thirteen students m a n a g e d to recognize PARTICLE as the
of that ngp, however,
elements
the way they have presented the
in their Portuguese
translation of RAPIDLY
adjective
into
headword
structural
t r a n s l a t i o n s , and the wrong
'ligeiramente'
18
before
the
'movel', giving rise to a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g ,
put the rendered translations as a w b t type of error.
have
The
translation of k. requires either a r a n k s h i f t e d group or clause
at q. The translations
j. (THIS) BIG
(m)
of j. and k. m i g h t have been as
BANG
IDEA
(m)
h
h
[q]
ideia
de uma grande
explosão
M
p
o
I
N
m
k. i) (A) R A P I D L Y - M O V I N G
-
(m)
(m)
h —
(uma) particula
m
PARTICLE
h
-[q]
de m o v i m e n t o s
rápidos
M
0
I
N
\
q
follows:
82
ii) (A) R A P I D L Y - M O V I N G
(m)
PARTICLE
-(m)
h
•h.
I!"-- •
(uma)partîcula que se m o v i m e n t a
rapidamente
19
M
S
C
P
A
1
I
N
I
h
I
V
I
V
1
N
I
h
5.3.3.
Errors which have been
The total
of several
Av
I
h
o,
20
ignored
number of errors in ngps a m o u n t e d to
types. Only 302 were
included as the ones described
as w b t and i rg kinds, for they are the ones which
reflect the influence
1,021
basically
of the sequence of the English
elements on the rendition of other ngps
structural
in P o r t u g u e s e .
Thus,
when we refer to a wbt error we refer to the way s t u d e n t s
rendered e q u i v a l e n t P o r t u g u e s e ngps
problems
involving m a r k e d evidence
the way students have perceived
We are interested in analysing
detect exponents
detect
in
translations.
those translations where we can
t r a n s l a t i o n examples
in - i n g , as in e x a m p l e s ' n u m b e r s
have ignored other types of errors
(ONE OF) THE MOST HELPFUL MODERN
uma ajuda da invenção
b.
uma das mais
c.
uma das invenções m o d e r n a s mais
d.
uma das invenções
involved;
of adjectives
5 and 6, on page
as the
following:
INVENTIONS
a.
moderna
modernas...
moderna
have
of that i n f l u e n c e , either
of the noun and adjective classes
except for the m o r p h e m e - b o u n d
ending
in which we can
(m) or h in their
.
util
(jn TIP}.
73 we
83
e.
uma da s ma is útil e moderna
f.
uma das mai s úteis e moderna
g.
uma das ma i s útil
h.
uma das mais úteis
i.
uma das mais útil
j.
uma das mais valiosa invenções
k.
a maior ajuda das invenções
invenção
invenções
invenção
moderna
invenções
invenções
Translations
moderna
moderna
moderna
modernas.
a . e . g . h . i . j . and k. do not show a m a r k e d
influence of the'(m) h s e q u e n c e ; b, and d. have not produced a
complete translation and as s u c h , they have to b e - i g n o r e d , e. and
f. are deviant Portuguese f o r m s , since c o n c o r d b e t w e e n
modifiers
and h e a d - w o r d has not been m a r k e d , e i t h e r in m o d i f i e r s
or in the
headword; in e.,
as the plural
'útil' and
'moderna' do not have the plural
Portuguese h e a d w o r d
the Portuguese headword
r e q u i r e s ; in f. ,
'invenção' and the m o d i f i e r
not. concord w i t h the m o d i f i e r
INVENTIONS
'invenções'
is in the p l u r a l , the Portuguese e q u i v a l e n t
'invenções'
m o d i f i e r s , which m u s t c o n c o r d in number w i t h their
However, despite
a marked,
element,
these d e v i a t i o n s , students
do
headword
headword
as well
as the
headword.
s u c c e e d e d in avoiding
w o r d - b o u n d t r a n s l a t i o n w h e n thsy included a linking
'e', between the m o d i f i e r s ; the translation of this
English nominal
There
'moderna'
'úteis'. As the English
should have been t r a n s l a t e d as plural
mark
group does not forcibly require a c l a s s - s h i f t .
is a certain m o b i l i t y as to the position of the
in Portuguese which m i g h t precede or follow
the h e a d w o r d
ções'. T h u s , the English ngp (ONE OFX THE MOST HELPFUL
INVENTIONS might be t r a n s l a t e d
- (uma das) mais úteis
(m)
as:
e modernas
i nvenções
Cm)
h
adjectives
'inven-
MODERN
84
- (uma das) i nvenções mode rnas mais
h
(q)
- (uma das) mais úteis
(q)
i nvenções
(m)
úteis
modernas
h
(q)
e. and f. cannot be said to satisfy all
the requisites
considered as a w b t e r r o r , as the following
by one
to be
translation
rendered
student:
1
(uma das) mais útil moderna
where the adition of that
'moderna' could
Portuguese
' e ' between
invenções'
the m o d i f i e r s
have a v o i d e d a quite
i n a d e q u a t e though
deviant
ngp.
One of the English exponents
structural
'útil' and
element of a verbal
of a ngp o p e r a t i n g as a
group in a r e n d e r e d
translation is c o n s i d e r e d as a type of error which
Portuguese
does not fit
in with our d e s c r i p t i o n of wb t and i rg e r r o r t y p e s , since we
have limited this research to the problems
only; if a Portuguese verbal
of tl»e exponents
of an English ngp, this error c a n n o t be
translations
have been
(THE PROCESS THAT ATTACK}
i rg e r r o r . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
EXPOSED METALS , (in T2P ):
'explodem
- (deste ataque)
b.
'exposto aos
- (que ataca)
c.
'expondo os m e t a i s '
- (deste ataque)
d.
'mostrado
- (deste ataque para) e.
the
ignored:
- (de ataques que) a.
The equivalents
ngps,
group has been formed out of one
classified either as a wbt or an
following
involved in
'expor
metais'
metais'
nos
metais'
metais'
of EXPOSED in a. c. and e. are e x p o n e n t s of verbal
g r o u p s ; i n b. and d. the m o d i f i e r EXPOSED has been t r a n s l a t e d as a qualifier - 'exposto' and
'mostrado' - of the h e a d w o r d
'ataque'
85
which has, in turn, been translated as a noun instead of a verb.
ATTACK operates at v in' the verbal
group which, precedes. EXPOSED
METALS.
The same critérium was a p p l i e d to the t r a n s l a t i o n
SOLID EVIDENCE CT2N)
-
into:
'Co) solido
To this
of
demonstra'
point, one English, ngp has given ri;se to two
different Portuguese groups:
' sol ido ' - one nominal
group - and
h
one verbal
group,
'demonstra', w i t h complete i n t e r f e r e n c e
with
v
c o m p r e h e n s i o n . However, errors which, have d i s p l a y e d verbal
which are related to other e l e m e n t s ' i n
made
in the translation
LAW and in UNIVERSITY
ensinando
lei' and
of TEACHING
'universidade
the same ngp, as the
in ( M
TEACHING METHODS
groups
NEW UNIVERSITY
into, 'nova
errors
TEACHING
universidade
ensinando m é t o d o s '
respectively,
are to be taken into a c c o u n t in this r e s e a r c h , b e c a u s e the limits
of e a c h English ngp can be clearly d e t e c t e d , that is to say, we
are able to identify the English ngp as a unit in its
rendered t r a n s l a t i o n .
had become
exponents
translations
the structural
of verbal
or adverbial
elements
of a ngp
groups, 2 - 2
in the
r e n d e r e d , that ngp w o u l d not give us any hint as to
the way some students
English
If all
Portuguese
perceive
the structural
elements
(m). ^
ngps.
The errors made in the t r a n s l a t i o n of A S C E N D I N G
ASCENDING
INFECTION and RECURRING
m e n t i o n e d in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
groups
and
in
in their rendered
in R E C U R R I N G A T T A C K S ,
already
of e r r o r s , have e x p o u n d e d
Portuguese
translations
in
verbal
-'ascendendo'
'recorrendo', r e s p e c t i v e l y - but as they have not been
86
linked to any other structural
elements
of the
surrounding
groups, they can be included in the types of errors which
served
have
our(purposes.
T h u s , w b t errors may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the type of
translation closely related to m o r p h e m e - b o u n d as to the
influence of the sequence of English ngps on the rendition
e q u i v a l e n t Portuguese
ngps. Among
find ngps w h o s e t r a n s l a t i o n
wbt
requires
errors
we
may
an insertion of a
rankshifted group or clause at (q) as the e q u i v a l e n t
structural
element to one
Errors
(m) in an English
ngp.
need the insertion of a
rankshifted group or clause at ^q) as one of the
Portuguese structural
5.4.
Portuguese
labelled as i rg have also o c c u r r e d in ngps
whose t r a n s l a t i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y
in an-English
of
elements, occupying
equivalent
the p o s i t i o n of (m) ,
ngp.
The types of ngps which have been
Before
presenting
the types of errors
the statistical
disregarded
analysis
applied to
mentioned above, a brief explanation
about
the kinds of ngps which have not been taken into a c c o u n t as part
of this research is
necessary.
To find out the error rate
- which we shall be discussing
per s t u d e n t
in the f o l l o w i n g
in each ngp
pages - we had
to take into account the number of errors - wbt and i rg ones
and the number of ngps
in each text a d m i n i s t e r e d
to our EL I
students. The number of words forming a ngp has also been
into c o n s i d e r a t i o n
difficulties
-
as a possible factor w h i c h has posed
in the t r a n s l a t i o n of ngps. In this w a y ,
the
taken
some
87
counting up of ngps c o n t a i n e d in each text was n e c e s s a r y
to
estimate the ç r r o r rate per s t u d e n t , i n each n g p , a n d to verify
a possible relation
of dependence between the number and types of errors
and the number of words forming a ngp.
—
We have decided not to count up those ngps formed by
deictics such as A , A N , T H E , T H I S , T H A T , T H E S E
possessive
pronouns
and THOSE
operating at (m) immediately
noun at h, as in THIS WAY
and
preceding
a
(T12P) and OUR OAR (T9P); ngps of
these types have not been counted up as two-word ngps
they have not c o n s t i t u t e d any difficulty
in their
since
translation
into Portuguese. The deictics A , A N , T H E , T H I S , T H A T , T H E S E
and THOSE
have not been counted up even in ngps of three or more w o r d s .
22
However, possessive pronouns have been counted up in ngps which
present a s u b m o d i f i e r , as in OUR OWN GALAXY
(TI1P) . Deictics
have also been counted up if they have been p r e c e d e d by ALL, as
in ALL THESE M A C H I N E S
possessive nominal
(TIP) and ALL THE M E T H O D S
g r o u p s , as PLANCK'S
(T8P) ; r a n k s h i f t e d
in PLANCK'S CONSTANT
(T8P)
have been counted up as e x p o n e n t s of m o d i f i e r s .
Any e l e m e n t operating
at (q) has been left out of the
counting up of the words w h i c h form a ngp. If a nominal
happens
group
to be operating at (q) it has been c o u n t e d up as an
independent ngp, 2 4
for we have treated ngps i n d e p e n d e n t of
their
function, either in ngp s t r u c t u r e or in clause s t r u c t u r e , as we
have already m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 1.
5.5,
Omissions
in the translations
W i t h i n the total
in the translations
.
number of all
of ngps
types of errors
made
of the t w e n t y - e i g h t texts a d m i n i s t e r e d
the Physics and the Nursing Groups
to
- 1¿021 errors a l t o g e t h e r - we
88
have also taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of ngps which have been o m i t t e d .
of errors made
the number of
translations
In the list of all
the
in ngps such blanks have been labelled
types
INCOMPLETE.
The Nursing Group has left out the t r a n s l a t i o n
eleven ngps in the specific texts, w h a t gives us a
of
percentage
of 3,20% of the 344 ngps found in those fourteen s p e c i f i c
texts
translated by that group. The two types of e r r o r s , namely w b t
and i rg, have occurred in 7 ngps out of those eleven ones
omission
where
has taken place. Thus, i n 63,64% of the ngps which
were left u n t r a n s l a t e d , wbt and i rg types of errors have
been found; this confirms the fact that those ngps
have posed some d i f f i c u l t i e s
to our
also
actually
students.
The ngps w h i c h have caused wbt and i rg errors as well
as omission are the following: THE T H I N , FLEXIBLE DRUM
THE LYMPH NODE STATIONS
(T3N) THE LEFT COLIC A R T E R I E S
ROOM AIR (T4N) LOWERED RESISTANCE
OS (T10N) and INCREASING
PARITY
(T5N) THE
INTERNAL
(TIN)
(T3N)
CERVICAL
(J10N).
The ngps which have caused other types of errors
well
as omission are the following
four ngps: LOWER
as
AIRWAYS
(T4N) LIVER CELLS (T7N) LUTEAL PHASE (T9N) and S E P T A T E
OR
BICORNUATE UNICOLLIS
been
UTERI
translated by twenty-one
(T9N ). This last ngp has not
s t u d e n t s , probably due to the m a r k e d
use of Latin roots and affixes w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e
words on technical
texts.
.
a n u m b e r of
•
The Physics Group has not rendered the t r a n s l a t i o n
three ngps from the specific texts; thus, the p e r c e n t a g e
is
obtained from the number of ngps where o m i s s i o n was produced
the total
number of n g p s - 222 - in all
those s p e c i f i c
texts.
of
1,35%
and
89
The ngps which have caused w b t and i rg
errors
plus
omission are the f o l l o w i n g : THE ONLY OBJECT
(T7P) and
STRESS (T3P);
(T3P) other types
in the ngp UNIQUE P R O P E R T I E S
'BUILT
errors pluss omission have been produced. Thus, in 66,67%
three ngps wbt and i rg errors have occurred together
of
of those
with
omission; in 33,33% only omission and other types of errors
been
IN'
have
produced.
In. the specific texts we have seen that the
of omission and other*types of errors as well
as omission
wbt and i rg types of errors has been almost equal.
below shows the percentage of omission
percentage
The
plus
table
plus w b t and i rg types of
errors in the same ngps, in the specific texts translated by both
groups of students, and also omission plus other types of errors
in the same ngps, in the texts
mentioned.
Table
1
O m i s s i o n and wbt/i rg types of errors
specific texts; omission and ether
of errors
in the same
in
types
texts.
Nursing and-'Physics . Groups
Groups
Omission and wbt/irg errors
Omission plus other types
of errors
Nursing Group
63,64%
36,36%
Physics Group
66,67%.
33,33%
. In the n o n - s p e c i f i c texts, only in the first
studied, EDUCATION
IN BRAZIL
text
(TIC) omission and wbt and irg
errors have been p r o d u c e d . The ngp which has caused
omission
and wbt and i_rg errors was THE COUNTRY'S U N I V E R S I T I E S
(TIC)
which another type of error was also m a d e . Thus, in the same
wbt- errors, irg ones, omission as well
in
ngp,
as another type of error
90
have been
found.
No omission occurred in the second n o n - s e p c i f i c
- RACE AND HEREDITY. Both groups of s t u d e n t s have
translated
those two non- specific texts as if they were only one
group
of s t u d e n t s ; those texts have been a d m i n i s t e r e d with the
of detecting
possible areas of d i f f i c u l t i e s
groups of s t u d e n t s ,
text
purpose
common to both
in c o n f r o n t a t i o n with the
difficulties
e n c o u n t e r e d by,each group of students when translating
the
specific texts. The highest percentage of omission which
has
co-occurred with w b t and i rg e r r o r s , in the same ngp, m i g h t
us to conclude
was
that a possible cause of those errors and
lead
omissions
due to the m a r k e d l y specific aspect of the English ngps
which those errors and omissions
in
o c c u r r e d . H o w e v e r , from the
of errors in ngps, with the percentage of students w h o have
those w b t and i rg types of e r r o r s , provided
list
made
in appendix 2.2.4., we
can see that the English ngps in w h i c h the h i g h e s t percentage
students made wbt and i rg e r r o r s , do not belong
specific v o c a b u l a r y , as the high p e r c e n t a g e s
translation of THE NEXT INSTANT
to a highly
produced by the
(J10P) and THE THIRD
TRIMESTER
(T10N), respectively 54,17% and 3 6 , 8 4 % , show. A d m i t t i n g
explanation
of errors
that the
is certainly a m o s t v u l n e r a b l e area of
error a n a l y s i s , we also recognize that o m i s s i o n in
translated
texts is a d i f f i c u l t area whose causes c a n n o t be easily
Although omissions
do not lend themselves
to an
elements
of
in a ngp, they have been taken into
because students have s u c c e e d e d in perceiving
those ngps by omitting exactly
of the structural
tackled.
accurate
e v a l u a t i o n of how students have p e r c e i v e d the sequence
structural
of
the limits
the t r a n s l a t i o n of the
account
of
exponents
elements which have formed those ngps,
namely
91
the exponents of (m) and h.
5.6. Statistical
To analyse
structural
analysi s of wbt and i rg
errors
the role which the sequence of the
elements of English ngps has played in the
translation
of texts applied to the Physics and the Nursing G r o u p s , it has
been necessary
to take into c o n s i d e r a t i o n
the number of wbt and
i rg errors in relation to the other types w h i c h also
occurred
in the translation of ngps.
At the end of the first semester of 1979, twenty-four
i
'
students of Physics had transiated° 12 specific texts;
thirty-eight
Nursing students had translated 14 specific ones, in the
period. At the beginning
of the semester both groups of
translated the same non-specific
referring
texts, which we have
same
students
been
to as TC. Thus, the specific texts applied to both
groups of students were different but the two n o n - s p e c i f i c
were the same, namely, EDUCATION
HEREDITY
ones
IN BRAZIL (TIC) and RACE AND
(T2C).
To verify w h e t h e r the number of w b t and i rg errors
were
statistically s i g n i f i c a n t in relation to the other types of errors
which also occurred
in ngps, the test of p r o p o r t i o n 2 5 was
to the two types of texts - specific and n o n - s p e c i f i c
although the Physics
students and the Nursing
the same two n o n - s p e c i f i c
applied
ones;
ones have
translated
texts, we have decided to apply
the
text of proportion to the results obtained from each group of
students s e p a r a t e l y , since we have been i n t e r e s t e d in verifying
the significance of w b t and i rg errors
as well as in the n o n - s e p c i f i c
in the specific
ones in each group of
texts
students.
Table
Total
of e r r o r s
other
types of e r r o r s
specific
1st
texts
semester,
Federal
2
i n n g p s , w b t / i rg e r r o r s
in ngps,
i n ngps and
in n o n - s p e c i f i c
Total
wbt/irg other
errors errors errors
V
X 2
University
of
ParaTba
Number o f P h y s i c s
students:
24
Number o f N u r s i n g
students:
38
SPECIFIC TEXTS
NURSING GROUP
d f
Total
Groups
1979
NON-SPECIFIC TEXTS
PHYSICS GROUP
Texts
and
t r a n s l a t e d by the P h y s i c s and N u r s i n g
wbt/irg' other
errors errors
errors
X
PHYSICS GROUP
2L
H f
Total
wbt/irg other
errors errors
NURSING GROUPS
errors
X
?L
Total
d f
wbt/irg other
errors errors
errors
X2
T O T A L
d.f.
19
6,662
i
44
18
26
0,910
1
40
11
29
0,456
1
23
0,00
I
18
06
12
0,000
1
39
15
24
03
0,461
1
31
09
22
0,200
1
67
04
14
53
4,331
52
28
24
10,574
1
52
63
08
44
7,079
1
1
16
47
1,786
1
42
10
32
1,714
1
01
45
16
30
0,099
1
38
19
02
37
17
20
3,083
1
34
11
05
47
12
35
1,516
1
05
09
06
03
6,000
07
1
29
11
18
0,200
1
08
32
01
31
13,853
1
59
17
42
0,681
1
12
29
1
.
16
07
09
1,164 .
1
41
59
13
46
0,434
17,361
06
03
03
0,750
11
1
45
06
39
8,100
11
05
06
0,393
06
-
12
13
1
06
3,000
1
1
08
04
04
0,533
1
23
14
06
-
-
17
14
0,767
7,778
1
1
-
13
1
12
3,250
1
536
113
423
09
•
10
14
Total
Total X 2
83
33
50
X2lg.l.;0,05=3,840
72
1,347
1
30
42
X2lg.l.;0,05=3,840
330
2,250
1
126
204
x 2 ig.l .;0.05=3,840
3,491
1
X 2 1 S - 1 .;0,05=3,840
Total
wbt/irg other
errors errors errors
1
1021
36,537
1
302
719
Table 2 shows the number of n o n - s p e c i f i c
specific ones, the total
number of errors
the other types of errors
number of errors, the
number of wbt/i rg errors and the total
in each
of other types of
text.
The test of proportion was applied to the
obtained from the total
with the total
of wbt and i rg errors
number of all
in
results
confrontation
errors in ngps, in each type
text and in each group of students. 2 ' 7 The hypothesis
says that the proportion of wbt and i rg errors
higher than the ratio of the total
total
number of all
number wbt and i rg e r r o r s , in all
and the Nursing s t u d e n t s ; 2 5
the texts, has been
Physics
h o w e v e r , in the specific texts, the
students.55
As to the Nursing
results the number of wbt and i rg errors was not
for their proportion was not equal
results
Group's
significant,
to or higher than the
proportion e s t a b l i s h e d by the test, that is, in three
one is of the wbt, or i rg
to or
errors to the
hypothesis m e n t i o n e d above has been a c c e p t e d only in the
obtained from the Physics
of
which
is equal
accepted in the n o n - s p e c i f i c texts t r a n s l a t e d by the
errors
type. s ¿ )
This result shows that the sequence of
structural
elements of ngps has not c o n s t i t u t e d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
difficulty for those Nursing
assume
plus
types of e r r o r s , s e p a r a t e l y , and the
chi-square t e s t 2 5 applied to the total
errors
(the wbt/i rg ones
in ngps) the number of wb t and- i rg
errors, the number of other
total
texts and the
students,
significant
in the specific t e x t s ; we
that some f a m i l i a r i t y with the subjects d i s c u s s e d in the
texts may have f a c i l i t a t e d
in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
their i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of ngps.
However,
texts, the number of wbt and i_r£ errors
by the same group of students w a s s t a t i s t i c a l l y
significant;
made
94
probably their knowledge of the subjects
specific texts was
limited and the linguistic
posed by ngps were not overcome
results
in those two
in both types of
non-
difficulties
to the point of equalling
the
texts.
The obstacles posed by ngps in the. specific and nonspecific texts have not been overcome by the Physics
The statistically
significant
students.
number of w b t and i rg errors
us believe that those students'
knowledge of the subjects
not sufficient for them to cope with the d i f f i c u l t i e s
Tabl e
makes
was
in ngps.
3 shows the number of wbt and i rg errors
made
by each group of students, the number of ngps and the error
per student, in each ngp, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
A l t h o u g h both groups of students
rate
texts.
have t r a n s l a t e d
same two n o n - s p e c i f i c texts, it is n e c e s s a r y to present
the
the
estimation of the error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, in each
group of s t u d e n t s , s e p a r a t e l y , since we w a n t to verify
there is any d i s c r e p a n c y
whether
between the a v e r a g e of error rates
per
student, in each ngp, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c t e x t s , and the
average
of error rates per student, in each ngp, in the specific
texts,
in each group of
student.
From the table below we see that the
twenty-four
Physics students made 33 w b t and i rg e r r o r s , in the two
specific texts, which presented a total
of 91
ngps, and the
average of error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, was
total
of 30 w b t and i rg errors
1,52%.The
in the same n o n - s p e c i f i c
was produced by the t h i r t y - e i g h t Nursing
non-
texts
s t u d e n t s , and the
average of error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, was
0,91%.
95
Table 3
Error rate per s t u d e n t , i n each
Non-specific
the Nursing
texts translated by the Physics
and
Groups
•1st semester,
Federal
ngp
1979
U n i v e r s i t y of
Number of Physics
Paraíba
students:
24
Number of Nursing students:
38
Physics
Group
Nursing
Group
T e x t s
e i
n 2-"
TIC
16
40
1 ,66
19
40
1,25
T2C
17
51
1 ,39
11
51
0,57
T o t a l
33
91
1 ,52
30
91
0,91
Source:
Direct
Ay
n ^
research
: number of w b t and i rg
: Z / - number of ngps in the
errors
text
3 / : error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, in
that
text
In Table 4 we have the number of specific
administered
texts
to the Physics and the Nursing G r o u p s , the
number
of wbt and i rg errors, the number of ngps i n each text and the
error rate per student, in each n g p . ' B o t h groups of
students
translated d i f f e r e n t specific texts; the Physics Group
translated
12 specific texts and the Nursing Group t r a n s l a t e d 14 specif i c .ones. *
96
Table 4
Error rate per student, in each ngp, in the specific
Texts translated by the Physics and the Nursing
1st semester,
Federal
texts.
Groups
1979
University
of
Paraíba
Number of Physics students: 24
Number of Nursing students:
38
Phys i cs Group
Texts
e
1
Nurs i ng Group
1
e —'
. n
n
. 18
25
3,00
11
42
0,69
2
5
17
1,47
15
42
0,94
3
0
mT'
13
2,88
14
30
1 ,23
Í
.. .
4
28
25
4,67
8
37
0,57
5
12
9
5,55
16
18
2,34
6
6
11
2,27
10
11
2,39
7
11
33
1,39
1
25
0,10
8
17
31
2,28
12
28
1,13
9
7
16
1 ,82
13
20
1,71
10
3
10
1 ,25
6
19
0,83-s
11
5
14
1 ,49
-
21
12
4
18
. 0,9 2
6
13
-
23
13
14
Total
126
Source: Direct
222
2,42
-
1 ,21
-
11
15
0,17
113
. 344
0,95
research
X y : number of wbt and i rg errors.
2_s : number of ngps
Z y : error
in the
text
rate per student, in each ngp, in each text
97
Table .4 .shows that the t w e n t y - f o u r Physics
made 126 wbt and i rg errors, in the t r a n s l a t i o n of
students
twelve
specific texts in which 222 ngps were found; the average
error rate per student, in each ngp, of this group-was
of
2,42%;
the Nursing Group t r a n s l a t e d fourteen specific t e x t s , with
total
a
of 344 ngps, and made 113 wbt and i rg errors; the average
of error rate per student, in each ngp, was
0,95%.
The average of error rates per student, in each
of the Physics Group was 1,52%, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
ngp,
t e x t s , and
2,42%, in the specific ones. The Nursing Group p r e s e n t e d an
average of error rates per student, in each ngp, of 0,91%, in
the non-specific texts, and 0 , 9 5 % , in the specific
To verify whether there was any
ones.
significant
discrepancy between the average of error rates per s t u d e n t , in
each ngp, in the specific texts and the average of error
rates
per student, in each ngp, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c ones, in each
group of s t u d e n t s , the
differences
't' test of S t u d e n t
21
,
to detect
in the a v e r a g e s , was a p p l i e d . We have assumed
the interpretation of ngps
in the s p e c i f i c
that
texts was easier
for
each group of students, since those texts are related to
students' a c a d e m i c fields. The first sample
the non-specific
Cn-¡ )
texts from which the average
rates per student, in each ngp, as well
wa
s
(x^) of
formed by
error
as the standard
deviation
Cs-j) were e s t i m a t e d . The second sample was formed by the
texts
(n 2 ) from which the average
(x 2 )
in each ngp, and the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
were estimated
22
of e r r o r rates per
(s2)
of the error
specific
student,
rates
.
The test m e n t i o n e d above was a p p l i e d to the
Physics
98
Group, arid the results showed that there was no
difference
between the average of'error rates .per s t u d e n t , in each
ngp,
in the specific texts and the average of error rates per
in each ngp, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
The same test
24
ones
22
student,
.
was a p p l i e d to the error rates
student, in each ngp, in the specific
per
texts and in the non-
specific ones a d m i n i s t e r e d to the Nursing Group
. The
results
of the test showed that there was no difference b e t w e e n
the
average of error rates per student, in each ngp, in the
specific
texts, and the average of error rates per s t u d e n t , in each
in the non-specific
ngp,
texts.
The results of the a p p l i c a t i o n of this
statistical
test revealed that the knowledge of the s u b j e c t was not a
decisive factor in those students'
individual
performance,
either
in the specific texts or in the n o n - s p e c i f i c ones. As to the
Physics and the Nursing students'
individual
p e r f o r m a n c e , we can
conclude that ngps, in both types of texts, c o n s t i t u t e d an area
of difficulty, i r r e s p e c t i v e of the type of texts where they were
inserted.
-To verify w h e t h e r
there was any c o r r e l a t i o n
the number of words compounding
student, in each ngp,
a ngp arid the error rate
in the r e n d i t i o n of w b t and irg
separately, it was necessary
per
texts and in the
specific ones, first. Both groups o f ' s t u d e n t s
as only one, in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
per
errors
to e s t i m a t e the error rates
student, in each ngp, in the n o n - s e p c i f i c
interested
between
have been considered
texts, since we have
been
in assessing any c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the length of
ngps and the rendition of wbt and irg e r r o r s ,
only.
Table 5
"
W b t and i rg e r r o r s , number of ngps in each
text,
error rate per s t u d e n t , in each n g p , and the
of the ngps
Physics
in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
and Nursing
length
texts.
students
Number of s t u d e n t s : 62
TEXT
e
n^
n
%
e
n
%
e
n
%
e
n
1
13
22
0,95
8
22
0,59
7
13 0,87
5
13
0,62 1
5
2
9
31
0,47
5
31
0,26
9
17 0,85
5
17
0,47
2
TOTAL
22
53
0,67
13
53
0,39
16
30 0,86 10
30
0,54 1
Source
:
Direct
-
7
%
0,32
-
e
n
0¡0
/
1
5
0,32
-
2
1
7
0,23
0,23
%
e
n
%
e
n
%
e
n
%
-
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
text
Z y : error rate per s t u d e n t in each
irg
n
made
ly : number of ngp in each
wbt
irg
e
research
: number of errors
6\
V7bt
irg
wbt
irg
wbt
irg
wbt
5v
4wg •
3wg
2wg
ngp
1
100
In Table 5 we have the error rate per student, in each
ngp, in wbt errors and in i rg ones, s e p a r a t e l y , because we also
wanted to verify whether students tended to produce one type of
error rather than the other, as the
number of structural
elements
increased.
The number of words forming
wg ; for instance, 2wg means
the ngps precedes
that we are referring
the
letters
to a two-word
ngp. The table above presents the results from the two
non-specific
texts.
In Table 5 we see that no error occurred in the only
ngp formed by five w o r d s , and that no ngp with six words was
found in those two texts. This m e a n s
that the c o r r e l a t i o n
test
is to be applied to 2wg, 3wg and 4wg, only.
Table 6 presents
the number of w b t and i rg errors
made
by the Physics s t u d e n t s , number of ngps in each text, and the
error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, in ngps of two, three
four w o r d s , in the specific
and
texts.
Table 6 shows no occurrence of 5wg, and only one 6wg,
where no wbt and i_r£ errors were made. Thus, the
correlation
test is to be applied to ngps of two, three and four w o r d s ,
Table 7 also presents the number of wbt and irg
only.
errors
in ngps of two, three, four, five and six w o r d s , the number
of
ngps in each specific text t r a n s l a t e d by the Nursing G r o u p ,
i
the error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp.
and
Table 6
Wbt and i rg e r r o r s , number of ngp i n each t e x t , e r r o r r a t e per s t u d e n t ,
i n each ngp, and the l e n g t h of ngps i n the s p e c i f i c t e x t s t r a n s l a t e d by
the P h y s i c s Group.
Number of s t u d e n t s : 24
2wg
TEXT
3wg
wbt
irg
wbt
2
n2e n
%
5 19 1,1 10 19 2,19
2 13 0,64 0 13 0,96
3
2 13 0,64
1
4
n
irg
%
5
-
-
4
-
1
4 1,04
-
wbt
e
n
e n
2
5 1,66
1
4 1,04
1
4 1,04
%
5
8
6
3 10 1,25
3 10 1,25
-
-
7
3 29 0,43
2 29 0,29
5
4 5,20
8
5 18 1,16
1 18 0,23
5 10 2,08
1 10 0,42
9
3 14 0,89
1 14 0,30
1
2 2,08
2
2 4,17
2
8 1,04
1
8 0,52
-
2
-
2
-
9
1
9 0,46
1
5 0,83
3
5 2,5
2 12 0,69
1
5 0,83
-
5
10
n.
12
TOTAL
-
1 12 0,35
47 174
wbt
i rg
e n
%
1 1 4,17
-
%
6wg
irg
e n % e n
wbt
%
i rg
e n % e n
%
1
7 13 2,24
13 21 2,58 13 21 2,58
8 4,17
e
5wg
4wg
4
8 2,08
1
1,12 48 174 1 ,15 14 41
Source:
-
1,42
-
-
1
4 1,04
11 41
-
-
1,12
-
1
-
1 3 1,39
-
1
-
-
1
4 3 5,55
-
1
2 6 1,38 4 6 2,78
Direct research
: number of e r r o r s
2s : number of ngp i n each t e x t
X , : e r r o r r a t e per s t u d e n t , i n each ngp.
1
-
Table
Wbt and i rg e r r o r s ,
student,
by t h e N u r s i n g
Number o f s t u d e n t s :
Text
2wg
wbt
32
number o f n g p s ,
i n each n g p , and t h e
translated
irg
0,33
33 0,64
0,56
13 0,20
13 0,40
28 0 , 2 8
28
14 0,94
14 0,94
1 ,31
0,66
wbt
wbt
i rg
17
0,37
1,31
1,75
2,63
2,63
2,63
1,31
2,63
17
1,31
0,33
1,31
1,31
10 1,58
10
0,44
1,75
0,65
0,66
10
10
10
0,32
0,66
11
17
17
2,63
-1
2,63
12
1,31
15
14
Total
irg
1,31
0,62
15
wbt
5,26
1,31
13
texts
0,93
0,40
0,79
per
6wg
irg
0,65
17 0 , 7 7
rate
5wg
23
17
error
38
4wg
wbt
0,41
0,082
i n each t e x t ,
l e n g t h o f ngps i n t h e s p e c i f i c
Group
3wg
irg
7
1.31
32
237 0,35
26 237 0,29 21 90 0,61
Sourse:
.22 90
Direct
0,64 [5
14 0,93
4
14
0,75
research
1/ : number o f
errors
2/:
number o f
ngps
3/:
error
rate
per s t u d e n t , i n
each n g p .
1,32
5,26
103
In Table 7 we see that wbt arid i rg errors have
been
made in ngps of five and six w o r d s ; thus, the c o r r e l a t i o n
test
is to be applied to. ngps of two, three, four, five and six
words,
although the number of errors, either wbt or i rg ones, has been
very small.in ngps of 5 and 6 w o r d s .
Table 8 shows the relation b e t w e e n the length of ngps
and the wbt and irg error rates per s t u d e n t , in each
separately in the non-specific
ngp,
texts, involving both groups of
students.
Table
8
Length of ngps and the error rates per
student,
in each ngp, in wb t and i rg e r r o r s , with
c o r r e l a t i o n rate of both types of
Physics and Nursing
Groups
Number of students:
62
Non-specific
\
the
errors.
texts
length
,
of ngps
error
rate per
student,in
each ngp (%)
Correlation
rate
2wg
3wg
wbt
0,67
0,86
0,23
0,81
irg
0,39
0,54
0,23
0 , 8 7 = 87%
.. 4wg
= 81 %
*7 f*
The c o r r e l a t i o n test
words compounding
was applied to the number of
the ngps and the error rates per s t u d e n t s , in
each ngp, for each type of error in the n o n - s p e c i f i c texts. The
37
correlation rate
, obtained in each type of error, has shown
104
that there
is no tendency for one type of error to prevail
the other, as the number of words
in ngps
over
increases.
The same test was applied to the number of words
forming the ngps and the error rates per s t u d e n t s ,
in each
ngp,
and in each type of error, in those texts a d m i n i s t e r e d
to the
Physics Group. Table 9 shows the results o b t a i n e d from
the
specific
texts a d m i n i s t r a t e d
to the Physics
Group.
Table 9
Length of ngps and the error rates per
student,
in each ngp, in wbt and i rg e r r o r s , with
the
c o r r e l a t i o n rates of both types of errors.
Specific texts t r a n s l a t e d by the Physics
Group.
Number of s t u d e n t s : 24
length
e r r o r \ o f
rate per
student, in
each ngp (%)
n
9Ps
Correlation
2wg
3wg
4wg
wbt
1,12
1,42
1 ,38
0,98
irg
1,15
1,12
2,78
0,97 = 9 7%
From the results
obtained
in the specific
=98%
texts
applied to the Physics Group we see that students have
tendency to make
the same
rate
the
types of errors, either w b t or i rg,
irrespective of the number of words .forming a ngp.
'/
.
.
Table
10 presents
*
the c o r r e l a t i o n rate in the wbt
errors and in irg ones, in ngps of two, t h r e e , f o u r , five and
six words. No i rg error was made
in the ngp w i t h five
words;
105
no wbt error was found in the only six-word
in the texts a d m i n i s t e r e d
to the Nursing
ngp which
occurred
Group.
Table 10
Length of ngps and the error rates per
students,
in each ngp, in wb t and i rg errors, with
the
c o r r e l a t i o n rates of both types of errors.
Specific texts t r a n s l a t e d by the Nursing
Number of students:
N.
Group
38
length
of ngps
3r
error
NT
rate per
student, in
each ngp (%)
N.
2wg
3wg
4wg
5wg
wbt
0,35
0,61
0,93
1,32
irg
0,29
0,64
0,75
-
6wg
Correlation rate
0,99 = 99%
-
5,26
0,86 = 8 6 %
From the results o b t a i n e d , we see that there is a
c o r r e l a t i o n between the length of the ngps and the error
per student, in each ngp. T h u s , the results
rates
presented in Tables
8, 9, and 10 show that in both types of texts, either in the
specific or in the n o n - s p e c i f i c
ones*
the error rates
student, in each ngp, increase as the number of words
a ngp also
per
forming
increases.
5.6.1. Comments on the results from the statistical
The sequence of the structural
tests
elements of ngps has
exerted an influence on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of ngps by those EL I
students, despite the result p r o d u c e d by the a p p l i c a t i o n of the
IOS'
.
test of p r o p o r t i o n to the number of w b t and i rg errors, made by
the Nursing
students, in the specific texts; that result did
not represent an alarming d i s c r e p a n c y
our a s s u m p t i o n m e n t i o n e d above.
to the point of
invalidating
It shows that Nursing
knowledge of the subjects discussed
students'
in the specific texts may
have been a factor w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e d the
interpretation
and, therefore, the r e n d i t i o n of a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
of ngps
significant
number of w b t and irg errors was a v o i d e d . However, a different
result was obtained in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of ngps, inserted in
the n o n - s p e c i f i c
texts, applied to the same group of s t u d e n t s ;
the number of wbt and i rg errors was statistically
significant.
This result makes us assume that their knowledge of the
introduced
subjects,
in the n o n - s p e c i f i c t e x t s , was not a decisive
in avoiding the influence of the sequence of the
elements on the students'
interpretation
factor
structural
of ngps. This
same
c o n c l u s i o n has been drawn from the results produced by the
a p p l i c a t i o n of the test of p r o p o r t i o n
to the number o f w b t and
irg errors, made by the Physics s t u d e n t s , in both types of
texts.
Their knowledge of the subjects d i s c u s s e d in those texts was
presumably limited, since they were not able to avoid the
influence ,of the sequence of the structural
ngps on their e q u i v a l e n t s
If we compare
in
elements
in
English
Portuguese.
the individual
performance
of both groups of s t u d e n t s , w i t h the types of texts
of the members
applied
(specific and n o n - s p e c i f i c ones) we see that the average of error
rates per student, in each ngp, was equal
That is to say, the factor
in both types of texts.
'knowledge of the subject' was
sufficient to avoid the p r o d u c t i o n
not
of wbt and i rg errors by
students, i n d i v i d u a l l y , i r r e s p e c t i v e
of the fact that some
texts
107
were linked to the academic fields of each group of
Thus, by the
Nursing
individual
students.
performance of the Physics and the
students, we are inclined to assume
knowledge of the subjects
presented
that the
individual
in both types of texts was
not sufficient for each student to avoid the influence of the
sequence of the structural
translation of ngps. The
elements
in English ngps on the
inability to identify the
elements of ngps was, t h e r e f o r e , an obstacle
structural
to the
comprehension
of ngps, in both types of texts.
There
is some c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the error rates
per
student, in each ngp, and the number of words forming a ngp; the
wbt and i rg error rates per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, i n c r e a s e d , asthe number of words in the ngps also i n c r e a s e d , in both types of
texts and in both groups of s t u d e n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we
say that this is a c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t
relationship.
cannot
This
correlation may also r e i n f o r c e those aspects w h i c h we have
referring
to: the poor k n o w l e d g e of the subjects
inability to identify the structural
elements
and the
been
students'
in English
ngps.
The problems w h i c h ngps have caused to these EL I
s t u d e n t s , either in s p e c i f i c or in n o n - s p e c i f i c
texts, may
rise to further stjdies. In our work we have been engaged
pointing out the interference of the sequence of the
in
structural
elements in English ngps, in the t r a n s l a t i o n of e q u i v a l e n t
into P o r t u g u e s e , with c o n s e q u e n t
i n t e r f e r e n c e with
We also admit that this work does not provide the
necessary for a c o m p r e h e n s i v e
ngps
comprehension.
elements
e v a l u a t i o n of the problems
which
ngps have posed to our EL I s t u d e n t s . Our m a i n purpose has
to show that ngps comprise an area of d i f f i c u l t y and to
that some changes in the EL I programme
give
should be m a d e .
been
suggest
108
NOTES
7
Letras'
students were not included in this
research
because at the time this research was carried out their
course
had d i s t i n c t purposes from those in EL I Course.
Complete references of all
the texts a p p l i e d to the
Nursing and Physics Groups could not be provided by the Department
of Modern Foreign
Languages.
7
An EL I group of s t u d e n t s is usually formed by students
of d i f f e r e n t groups
in other d i s c i p l i n e s ; one s t u d e n t ,
for
instance, can have X and Y as classmates in his EL I Course
but
different classmates in his, say, Pathology Course. Students
offered a certain number of d i s c i p l i n e s each s e m e s t e r ;
usually take those w h i c h are p r e - r e q u i s i t e s
to other
are
they
disciplines
or those w h i c h fit best their own c o n v e n i e n c e s . T h u s , an EL I
group of students may or may not be having all
the
offered at that semester. M o r e o v e r , at the Medical
offer of some d i s c i p l i n e s
disciplines
School
the
to Nursing s t u d e n t s does not take
place in the same semester as they are offered to Medical
students.
be helpful
It seems to us that this a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s p e c t
as to the s e l e c t i o n of future texts to be
either by Nursing Groups or by Medical
4
studied
students.
T h e favourable a s p e c t of the inclusion of texts
were not directly
that they would prefer to deal with texts just like
In
in
their reaction to
the a p p l i c a t i o n of texts numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4; they
5
which
linked to the m a j o r area of those students
that group was that we were able to observe
7, 8, 9 , 10 and
should
claimed
numbers
12.
texts numbers 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12, t w e n t y - s e v e n
wbt
errors and fifteen i rg errors were m a d e . Except for text 4 in
which they made the highest number of w b t and i rg errors
-
t w e n t y - e i g h t a l t o g e t h e r - it was in text 8 that they made
the
second highest number of wbt and i rg errors: eleven wbt
and six irg errors; s e v e n t e e n errors of both
types.
errors
109
^CATFORD,
p.78-9.
y
d, o, e, and n are the structural
scale at (m); see chapter 1 for
elements of the
delicacy
details.
ft
The parallel
translations
lines linking
of those groups
the English ngps to
indicate which w o r d in an
ngp has produced that one in the rendered Portuguese
^ S I N C L A I R , p . 1 7 4 - 5 ; 188. On page.181
"the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
Portuguese
structure
of verbal
stands for auxiliary verb, v^ for m a i n
English
ngp.
Sinclair says
groups
that
is aux v. Aux
verb."
^ S I N C L A I R , p. 157-9; 171-2. See chapter 1 for
further
details.
11
Ibid. p. 186.
12
See T5N, text number five a p p l i e d to the Nursing
in the list of all
types of errors in ngps,in the texts administered
to the Nursing Group.
13
The same reasoning
EARLY SCIENTISTS
is a p p l i e d to the translations
(T9P) into: a)
c i e n t i s t a s ' , since
other surrounding
'antes' and
'antes cientistas' ,
b)
of
'cedo
'cedo' were not linked to any
groups ; if they had been t r a n s l a t e d as
of any other group, the a d d i t i o n of an a r t i c l e
the headwords
Group,
exponents
(a deictic)
before
'cientistas', in b o t h t r a n s l a t i o n s , had been
achieved.
14
A rankshifted group is u s u a l l y presented between
brackets.
It is a c o n v e n t i o n employed by James Muir in A m o d e r n approach
English grammar. London, Batsford, 1972.
J5
SINCLAIR,
to
149p.
p.209.
ig
A l t h o u g h Sinclair's d e s c r i p t i o n of a finer scale
of
delicacy at (m) - namely, d, o, e, and n - we have decided to
maintain the use of (m) for all
types of m o d i f i e r s
and
submodifi ers, for our m a i n concern is not related to the
classification of m o d i f i e r s
of the ngps according
in itself. M o r e o v e r , in the
division
to the number of words which form each ngp,
no
some d e i c t i c s , operating at d, have been excluded because
they
have not constituted a d i f f i c u l t element in the translation
of
ngps.
17
A r a n k s h i f t e d clause is usually p r e s e n t e d b e t w e e n a
double pair of brackets. See
18
The Portuguese word
before the word
note 14 above.'
'ligeiramente' as it has been
'movel' gives rise to a m e a n i n g
one conveyed either by S L I G H T L Y - M O V I N G
used
similar to the
PARTICLE or
SLIGHTLY-
MOBILE PARTICLE, that is to say, a particle w h i c h moves
slowly,
or which can hardly move.
2S
Another
possible
t r a n s l a t i o n m i g h t be:
'(.urna) partícula
m o v i m e n t a n d o - s e com r a p i d e z ' , h o w e v e r , in relation to the rest of
the text, the t r a n s l a t i o n s u g g e s t e d in ii) seems to be more
appropriate.
20
We have chosen Av_ to indicate an a d v e r b - h e a d g r o u p , or
a group with a lexical adverb as h e a d w o r d . See S I N C L A I R , p.205.
21
It should be r e m e m b e r e d that our s t u d e n t s are not to
be viewed as translators a l t h o u g h teachers c a n n o t overlook
the
possibility of a r a n k s h i f t w h i c h does not interfere
with
c o m p r e h e n s i o n ; we do not e x p e c t s t u d e n t s to achieve
appropriate
t r a n s p o s i t i o n , or oblique t r a n s l a t i o n s w i t h o u t
interference
with c o m p r e h e n s i o n , as it is e x p e c t e d from t r a n s l a t o r s ,
to A Y O R A , Gerardo
V a z q u e z , already
chapter 4. From our students'
referred to in note
8
two or more words and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s
elements of a ngp of
underlying
those
elements are the least we can e x p e c t from them;
the underlying
relationships
if
of (_m) and h require a rankshift
as a t r a n s l a t i o n e q u i v a l e n t at (m) EL I students are
expected
to be able to a c c o m p l i s h that r a n k s h i f t at the a p p r o p r i a t e
if there are two or m o r e than two before h. As to this
Widdowson refers to the d i f f i c u l t y w h i c h ngps of the
kind COPPER E L E C T R O D E , A C O N D E N S A T I O N
(.m),
point,
following
LOSS or A C O M B U S T I O N
CHAMBER can cause "because the grammatical
them can be quite d i f f e r e n t .
of
p e r f o r m a n c e we consider that the
correct i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the structural
structural
according
relations
'A c o p p e r e l e c t r o d e ' for
underlying
example
in
is 'an electrode which is made of copper', where
'a condensation
loss' is a loss which is caused by condensation and
chamber'
'a combustion
is a chamber which is used for combustion", in WIDDOWSON,
H.G. Literary and scientific uses of English. English
Language
Teachi ng Journal . London, Oxford University Press, 28(4): 277-359 ,
July, 1974. p.290. The difficulty posed by some ngps has also
been
discussed by LEVI, Judith N. The syntax and semantics of complex
nomi nal s. New York, Academic Press, 1 978.
p.75-117.
Sopher states that another difficulty comprises the use of
modifiers, usually adjectives and adverbs, which become
qualifiers
in the students' native language; AN EXTENSIVE HEAT-AFFECTED
and AN EXTENSIVELY
ZONE
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE are quoted by .Sopher as
examples of difficulties.. In SOPHER, E. An introductory
approach
to the teaching of scientific English to foreign students. Engl i s h
Language Teaching Journal , London., 28(4) : 272-359 , July, 1974.
p.354. If our EL I students wer« required to translate these types
of ngps, which we have quoted from Widdowson and Sopher, they
should be able to insert a rankshifted group, or clause, at (q)
as the Portuguese equivalent from one of the English modifiers.
22
See Tables 3 and 4 in which the number of ngos in
text has been presented together w i t h the error rate per
each
student,
in each ngp. Tables 5, 6 and 7 present the number of errors m a d e ,
the number of ngps in each text, the error rate per
student,in
each ngp as well as the number of ngps according to the number
of words which form the ngps, found in each text.
23
We think that the translations of these deictics - A ,
AN, THE, THIS, THAT, THESE and THOSE - might also
reinforce
the same aspects of the problems which we have been
dealing.with:
the incorrect identification of the headword in a ngp, or the
change of an exponent at (_m) into the headword of another
ngp;
however, to make the counting up of words forming a ngp a simpler
procedure, we have decided to ignore those
24
SINCLAIR.
deictics.
p.147. He says that "almost everything
occurs at (q) is rankshifted". He gives the following
that
examples
of rankshifted.ngps at (q): A HAT THIS SIZE and THE MEETING
(m) h
NEXT WEEK
[q]
[q]
(m)
h
112
25
OSTLE, Bernard. Estadística
aplicada. Mexico,
p.14,0-54. 302 w b t and i rg errors out of a total
of 1021
Limusa,
errors
represent a ratio of the former to. the latter of 1:2,38 = 1:2,
that is to say, _ L
Thus, it has been decided that in
:
3
3
any type of text (either specific or n o n - s p e c i f i c
ones), the
occurrence
if their
of wbt/irg
proportion were equal
errors would be s i g n i f i c a n t
or higher than the proportion produced by
the counting up of all types of e r r o r s , in ngps, to those
wbt and i rg ones, in all
the
302
texts.
P <»
C 0 N 0 V E R , Jay W i l l i a m s . Practical
nonparametric
statistics.
New York, J. Wiley, 1971. p.155. The test is given.by
X2 = zr Ie
i = 1
0ij
Eij
with ( r - I R c - U
Eij
j = 1
27
See A p p e n d i c e s
f)Q
"See
29
30
31
degrees of freedom.
3 . 1 . 1 . , 3 . 1 . 2 . , 3 . 1 . 3 . and 3.1.4.
Appendices
See Appendix
See Appendix
3.1.1. a n d
3.1.2.
3.1.3.
3.1.4. and note 25, abnve.
—
G U E N T H E R , William C. Introducción a 1 a
e s t a d i s t i c a . M a d r i d , Ed. del C a s t i l l o , 1968.
3
- S e e Appendix
S2
S e e Appendix
34
GUENTHER,
35
S e e Appendix
S6
0STLE,
37
.
inferencia
p.153.
3.2. and 3.2.1.
3.2.1.1.
p.153.
3.2.1 .2.
p.252-3.
The correlation
Pxy =
rate was o b t a i n e d from the
See note 3 6 , above.'
( E X 2 x Z y 2 ) 1/2
•
formula:
113
CONCLUSION
The numbèr and the quality of the errors made in ngps
are evidence
that these are actually a source of
serious
difficulty for the students with whom we have worked.
statistical
errors
The
tests have shown that the incidence of wbt and i rg
in the face of a 1.1 the other types of e r r o r s , which
also been produced in the translation of English ngps, is
have
relevant.
These two types of errors as we have d e s c r i b e d them in chapter
are the ones which characterize
transfer the usual
Portuguese
those students'
sequence of the structural
tendency
elements
ngp to some English ngps found in the texts
The importance of this transference-*
e q u i v a l e n t Portuguese
5,
to
in a
translated.
lies in the fact that the
ngps as rendered by those EL I students
are in complete interference with the message
texts studied by both groups of s t u d e n t s .
conveyed in the
It has become
that students have not. achieved any other kind of
which has not interfered with
evident
translation2
comprehension.
Except for the t r a n s l a t i o n of A DUSTY ROOM
(T9P)
into
'na poeira da sala', which has also shown the influence of the
sequence of English structural
e l e m e n t s , plus the insertion of
a r a n k s h i f t e d group - 'de uma sala' - no other examples
of
t r a n s p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t interference w i t h c o m p r e h e n s i o n have
been
produced.3
English ngps have posed d i f f i c u l t i e s
students in both specific and n o n - s p e c i f i c
to our EL I
types of texts.
such as the ones below have shown that the d i f f i c u l t y has
Errors
been
posed i n d e p e n d e n t of the relation b e t w e e n the c o n t e n t of the
114
text and the major disciplines
TIC (non-specific
taken by each group of
text).
Translations
students:
rendered by the
Nursing and Physics
EDUCATIONAL
POLICY
educação
política
educação
policial
educacional
política
THE COUNTRY'S UNIVERSITY
os países
THE CHANGING
mudanças
necessarias
mudanças
precisas
NEEDS
T2C
Groups
universitarios
Translations
rendered by bo.th
groups : the Nursing and the
Phys i cs
NEGROID
SKIN
RACES
ones.
negroide
COLOUR
pele
raças
colorida
pele de cor
pele e cor
HEAD
cabeça
SHAPE
moldada
cabeça e forma
In the specific texts we have found the f o l l o w i n g examples
of
translation in each group of s t u d e n t s :
Nursing Group
SUBMUCOUS FIBROIDS
(T9N)
Translations
submucos
fibrosas
submucos
fibrados
submuco
fibroide
submuco
fibroso
submucosa
submucos
CHRONIC PULMONARY
CARDIAC DISEASE
THE RELATIVELY
INABILITY
rendered
fibroides
fibroides
OR
(T8N)
crônico
pulmonar do cardíaco
doente
crónica
pulmonar ou cardíaca
doença
SUDDEN
(T12N)
a relatividade
o relativo
subita da
súbito da
inabilidade
inabilidade
115
TISSUE
INJURY
(T6N)
tecido
ofendido
tecido mal
tecido
Physics
Group
REINFORCED CONCRETE
prejudicado
Translations
(T4P)
reforçado com
reforço de
THE VIOLET AND ULTRAVIOLET
rendered
concreto
concreto
(T7P)
END
violeta e u l t r a - v i o l e t a
final
• violetas e u l t r a - v i o l e t a s
final
a violeta, a ultra-violeta
e o fim
a violeta, a ultra-violeta,
A RAPIDLY-MOVING
fim
(T9P)
PARTICLE
um rápido m o v i m e n t o
REQUISITE CONDITIONS (T5P)
de
partícula
uma ligeira mudança de
partícula
uma l i g e i r a m e n t e movei
partícula
os requisitos
condicionados
os requisitos
e condições
os r e q u i s i t o s ,
planos de
condições
condições
Within the specific texts, ngps which cannot be said to belong
strictly to technical
terminology have also caused
interference
with the message conveyed. The ngps below have caused
percentages
of w b t and i rg errors among students
THE NEXT
THE THIRD
EVERYDAY
ROOM AIR
INSTANT
TRIMESTER
THINGS
high
groups.4
of both
(T10P) 54,17%
(.13 out of 24 students).
(J10N) 36 ,84%
(14 out of 38
students)
(TIP)
33,33%
( 8 out of 24
students)
(T4N)
28,95%
(11 out of 38 students)
The length of ngps was assumed to be a factor which
influence the p r o d u c t i o n of wbt and i rg errors. We a s s u m e d
errors, mainly the ones d e s c r i b e d as the wbt type, were
that
unlikely
to be caused by ngps formed by three or more w o r d s , since the
/
might
very
116
t
length of.the
ngps m i g h t f u n c t i o n as a factor w h i c h would make
students aware of the incorrection of their t r a n s l a t i o n s ;
is to say, the longer the ngps, the less probability
error occurrence. H o w e v e r , the statistical
shown that there is a d e p e n d e n c e
of words forming
of wbt
test applied
relationship
has
between the
a ngp and the number of errors, though
cannot be said to be a c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t
that
number
that
r e l a t i o n s h i p . The
problems
posed by long ngps, formed by five or six. ..words, mi gh t have
been
better evaluated if the incidence of long ngps had been
significant
in the texts translated. N e v e r t h e l e s s , our aim has been to
the difficulties
e n c o u n t e r e d by our EL I students
present
in pieces of
written English taken as authentic m a t e r i a l s . Any changes in the
formation of ngps, or the inclusion of longer ngps in texts to
be studied by EL I students s h o u l d be made not only by an expert
in the subject-matter
p r e s e n t e d in each text but also by one who
mastered the English language. These alterations
have not been
our main concern, because we have been i n t e r e s t e d
in viewing
the
problems faced by EL I students in texts as they are actually
down for
laid
them.
The students'
knowledge
of the subject is one aspect
which we have taktn for g r a n t e d ; h o w e v e r , the facts have shown
errors have been made not only in ngps related to specific
of study but also in ngps which are not r e s t r i c t e d
to
fields
their
fields of study.
As EL I students are usually required to c o n s u l t ,
specific literature
in English during
their
undergraduation
c o u r s e s , and in view of some lines of thought a b o u t the
and comprehending
it is impossible
reading
process w h i c h we have m e n t i o n e d in chapter
to believe
that they will make
sufficient
that
3,
117
(
progress
in their ability to c o m p r e h e n d English texts,
ways can be found to overcome
this area.of
difficulty.
unless
118
NOTE
1
2
See c h a p t e r
3, note 47. C O R D E R »
See chapter
•.
5, note 21. A c c o r d i n g
in V I N A Y , J.P. & D A R B E L N E T ,
et de l ' a n g l a i s ; m é t h o d e
p.46-55,
p.132.
to Vinay
0. S t y l i s t i q u e
de t r a d u c t i o n .
and
c o m p a r e e du
Paris, Didier,
there are two broad t y p e s of t r a n s l a t i o n :
or literal
translation,
and the o b l i q u e
translation.
have not even a c h i e v e d w h a t they d e s c r i b e
- the o n e - t o - o n e w o r d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
the
as literal
without
a p p l i e d to s c i e n t i f i c
is s¿id
texts, unless
to b e ' i m p o s s i b l e
1972,
direct,
Our
students
translation
type
for
with
of
it does
rise to: a m e s s a g e w i t h a n o t h e r m e a n i n g , a m e a n i n g l e s s
or a m e s s a g e w h i c h
français
interference
c o m p r e h e n s i o n - w h i c h , they s a y , is the m o s t c o m m o n
translation
Darbelnet,
not give
message,
structural
r e a s o n s ' , or the one w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s
to n o t h i n g
m e t a 1 ingui ti cs of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e ,
or w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s
any other thing but not at the
same
level
characteristic
they m e a n
which depends
utilizes
"the s t y l i s t i c
on the p a r t i c u l a r
language
field
language"
'(na) p o e i r a
irg error b e c a u s e
conveyed
de uma
it has
sala'^has
not
t h a t sort of c l a s s - s h i f t
translators
See
in c h a p t e r
co-occurring
that made
led some
students
message
however,
to
render
1, note
13, a s s u m i n g
in EL
errors.
and
that they are
of t r a n s l a t i o n
not
techniques
I Course.
2 . 2 . 4 . - List of w b t a n d i rg errors
aspects, with
those
commercial,
not b e e n c o n s i d e r e d as an
( T 9 P ) ; we c a n n o t ,
and that the d e v e l o p m e n t
Appendix
speaker
p r o c e d u r e , as d e s c r i b e d by C a t f o r d
has not been one of the aims
4
language
language
administrative,
i n t e r f e r e d w i t h the
the f a c t o r s w h i c h
also p r e s e n t e d
or a
to
p.14.
in the text m e n t i o n e d
particularize
level. By
in w h i c h the
the l a n g u a g e , e.g. j u r i d i c a l ,
scientific
in the
the p e r c e n t a g e
and number
of
plus
students
119
i
RECOMMENDATIONS
Some points need to be taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n
face of the problems
presented
in
by the rendered translations
the ngps in the texts studied by those two g r o u p s . We know
of
that
i
students are not forced to take E n g l i s h in their first
semester
at the UFPB, however, one of the m o s t probable m o t i v a t i n g
which makes most newly- admitted
at the beginning
students
take their
EL I Course
of their u n d e r g r a d u a t i o n courses is the
that they are generally required to read s p e c i f i c
fact
materials,
written in English. We know that students are r e c o m m e n d e d
c o n s u l t specific
of their academic
literature
in English
forces
since the very
to
beginning
life.-2
One m i g h t argue that students should take their EL I
Course at any other time after their immediate entrance at the
UFPB; n e v e r t h e l e s s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
reasons allow students
take English at any time of their u n d e r g r a d u a t i o n
DLEM cannot overlook
to
course and the
the fact that m o s t EL I students are
taking
their first semester at the UFPB a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , it m i g h t
think of the a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s
of the material
to be laid down for
that course. Texts dealing with subjects w h i c h were
undoubtedly
familiar to students m i g h t be one of the factors which
would
minimize
texts
the probable l i n g u i s t i c problems
posed by the
studied in EL I c l a s s e s , and, at the same time, texts of that
kind m i g h t give the teacher the a d v a n t a g e of taking students
look for meaning beyond
words.
To apply texts whose
might in fact minimize
to
content was familiar to
some d i f f i c u l t i e s
and f a c i l i t a t e
students
students'
1 20
ability to deal with language use; on the other hand, in reallife activities
students are not always expected to come
texts whose contents are always f a m i l i a r to them. The
across
application
of texts which would deal
with. u p - t o - d a t e and interesting subjects
might act as a m o t i v a t i n g
factor - for students are
interested
in getting
always
new information from texts - and
those
texts m i g h t also work as a possible means of verifying
students'
ability to deal with texts whose c o n t e n t , though belonging
to
students' major area of study, was not known by them. The actual
mastering
of the subjects p r e s e n t e d in each text by students
should be one aspect which w o u l d make the evaluation of their
linguistic performance rftore p r e c i s e . Then, teachers m i g h t also
compare
the results o b t a i n e d from texts whose contents
were
certainly familiar to students w i t h those from texts whose
contents were not c e r t a i n l y f a m i l i a r
synchronization
of students'
to them, so that the
knowledge
linguistic performance m i g h t be better
At a practical
a p p r o a c h according
Liisa L a u t a m a t t i 2
of the subject with
evaluated.
level, teachers
to students' ability
suggests
their
should rethink
their
to read English
texts.
that
"a reading course would be a general
offered to all
one,
s t u d e n t s and based on the mother
tongue .. .
and she still
states
that
"if students are taught how to compensate
their
insufficient
knowledge of the
language by using all
knowledge
develop
for
foreign
their previously
acquired
relevant to the task, they will
not only the right kind of
reading
s t r a t e g i e s but strategies for learning
from
w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l , and a c o n f i d e n t and independent
121
approach to
reading."4
And as her last suggestion, she claims that
learning materials
reading-oriented
need to be
"produced by language teaching experts
c o o p e r a t i o n with reading
representatives
experts
in
and
concerned." 5
of the field of study
A similar approach has been put forward by W i d d o w s o n 5 who
that communicative a b i l i t i e s , p r e v i o u s l y
skills operating
on their (students')
associated to the linguistic
related to
own language
suggests
linguistic
should be
skills related to the
foreign
language. The teacher should make use of students' already
acquired
experience of language use and link
"their c o m m u n i c a t i v e
abilities
in their own
language to the r e a l i z a t i o n of these
in the language
Should ngps still
they are
learning."
persist as an area of
abilities
7
linguistic
difficulty, in both kinds of texts d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , that is to
say, in texts whose c o n t e n t was c e r t a i n l y new to students as
well as in the ones whose content was actually f a m i l i a r to
students', teachers
overcome
should think of a practical
the d i f f i c u l t i e s
approach to
posed by ngps. One way of avoiding
wbt and i.rg errors m i g h t be the p r e s e n t a t i o n of ngps as
operating at S,0,C o/s or A
8
in clause structure.
Students
would be led to recognize the b o u n d a r i e s of ngps and
their structural
consequently
e l e m e n t s . Teachers m i g h t begin witha clause
as THAT MAN BOUGHT A CAR so that students m i g h t perceive
S
elements
P
such
the
O
exponents of each group w i t h o u t the risk of m a r k i n g
of these groups as THAT/ MAN BOUGHT/ A/
The exponents
operating
the
exponents
CAR.
at S m i g h t be enlarged by putting
122
in some other e x p o n e n t s ,
as D E T E R M I N E D
w o u l d have THAT D E T E R M I N E D
OLD M A N /
and OLD. T h u s ,
B O U G H T / A CAR. The same
S
be;applied
added: A D A R K GREY
able
P
to A C A R , to w h i c h
T H A T MAN/
the f o l l o w i n g
ITALIAN CAR. By doing
to locate the h e a d w o r d
P
O
exponents might
be
so, s t u d e n t s w o u l d be
if t h e y w e r e
to
compare
0
THAT D E T E R M I N E D
OLD MAN/
B O U G H T / A DARK GREY
S
take
would
B O U G H T / A CAR
S
Dividing
students
the c l a u s e
P
into
-
its s t r u c t u r a l
the f i r s t step to a v o i d w b t and
ITALIAN
0
elements, teachers
i rg
CAR
might
errors.
«
Paraphrasing
of their structural
useful
technique
ngps to c a u s e
elements
to r e i n f o r c e
the r e c o g n i t i o n
as well
groups, without mentioning
are i l l u s t r a t i o n s
of ngp
as i n a d e q u a t e
have d e s c r i b e d as w b t o n e s . The e x a m p l e s
and S o p h e r 3
INJURY
provided
of p a r a p h r a s i n g
(T6N) and S T E E L WIRES' CT4PJ
e i t h e r in E n g l i s h
or in P o r t u g u e s e ,
the need to c o m p a r e
ngps w i t h
any
the rest of the
interference
The r e c o g n i t i o n
draw s t u d e n t s '
text,
insertion
by
Widdowson
which could
to be
the
paraphrased,^
they w o u l d c e r t a i n l y
obtained'from
to see w h e t h e r
of e a c h s t r u c t u r a l
the
feel
paraphrased
t h e r e had
been
text.-11
element would
possibly
type of a p p r o a c h w h i c h m i g h t be helpful
attention
is to m a k e
to the s e q u e n c e
students
translate
be
ngps
w i t h the m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d by the w h o l e
Another
elements
the m e s s a g e
structural
those e r r o r s w h i c h we
e x p l o i t e d by t e a c h e r s . T h u s , if s t u d e n t s w e r e g i v e n
TISSUE
relationships
to be e x p o u n d e d , m i g h t also be a
e l e m e n t s and a v o i d u n n e c e s s a r y
of r a n k s h i f t e d
the u n d e r l y i n g
of E n g l i s h
ngp
follow.
to
structural
ngps e x p o u n d e d by one
word
123
t
only, and gradually add a number of m o d i f i e r s . The
translation
of ngps which were gradually being enlarged m i g h t be an attempt
to help students to identify
the position of headwords
and
modifiers. The t r a n s l a t i o n , for i n s t a n c e , of the ngp A NEW
UNIVERSITY TEACHING
:
LAW (TIC) m i g h t begin
A
LAW -
A TEACHING
LAW -
A UNIVERSITY T E A C H I N G
LAW -
A NEW UNIVERSITY T E A C H I N G
LAW -
with:^
The selection of the texts to be studied by EL I
students deserves special
attention
to take students to attain
the objectives pursued by the c o u r s e . The effect which a real
fami 1 iarity with the topics m i g h t have on the percentage
errors may be an elucidating
problems
factor of other d i f f i c u l t i e s ,
of
for
posed by ngps are unlikely the only ones to be faced
by EL I students.
124
NOTES
7
See declarations
provided by the Director of the Centre of
Health Sciences and the Head of the Physics D e p a r t m e n t at
Federal
U n i v e r s i t y of Paraíba, about the specific
English
to be consulted by s t u d e n t s . Appendix
2
English Teaching
London, 1 978.
in a f o r e i g n language.
literature
in
4.
L A U T A M A T T I , Liisa. Developing m a t e r i a l s
reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n
the
for
teaching
In: BRITISH
Information C e n t r e . The teaching
of
COUNCIL.
comprehension.
p.92-109-.
2
Ibi d. p.107.
4
Ibid.
5
1 b i d.
^ W I D D O W S O N , H . G. Teaching
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1978.
language as c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Oxford,
p.74.
/ibid.
8
o
Refer back to chapter 1 .
See note 21, in chapter
5.
"^Those ngps m i g h t be p a r a p h r a s e d as
tissue' and 'wires made of s t e e l ' ,
21
lt
'injury caused in
respectively.
is i m p o r t a n t to e m p h a s i z e
told about our intention of analysing
that students were
s p e c i a l l y the
not
problems
posed by ngps. From m o s t of the r e n d e r e d t r a n s l a t i o n s , we have
noticed that some students w e r e not always
conveyed by each ngp a g a i n s t the m e s s a g e
testing
the message
conveyed by the
text
as a w h o l e .
• Z 2 C0RDER, p.293. He suggests
that a technique of correction
"might be a comparison of the r e c o n s t r u c t e d
form with its
translation e q u i v a l e n t in the m o t h e r tongue of the
learner".
125
<
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42. LEVI, Judith N. The syntax and,semantics
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APPENDIX
1
1. T E X T S
1.1. Non - s p e c i f i c
texts
(Texts c o m m o n to both g r o u p s
Nursing
- Physics Group
Group)
.
EDUCATION
During
more appropriate
IN B R A Z I L
- TIC
the last ten y e a r s , the B r a z i l i a n
system has u n d e r g o n e
many reforms
a i m e d at m a k i n g
to the c o u n t r y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a l
step in this d i r e c t i o n was t a k e n
in 1961
teaching
the
law.
This
responsibilities
educational
law o u t l i n e d
system
in both
the
and educational
between
and
set g u i d e l i n e s
have been r e o r g a n i z e d
changing
Culture
supervises
education
s y s t e m , and the Federal
preparing
plans
1 9 7 1 , the
other
Educational
In 1971, the Federal
the
at
basic
national
orientation
and s t r u c t u r e
a s p e c t s of
The M i n i s t r y
throughout
for the national
for
institutions
to a d j u s t the e d u c a t i o n a l
needs of the s o c i e t y .
and
levels.
p o l i c y , the o r g a n i z a t i o n
e d u c a t i o n , the c u r r i c u l a , and all
first
Authority's
public and p r i v a t e
1961
system
n e e d s . The
T h r o u g h a s e r i e s of laws and d e c r e e s on
passed
educational
with a guideline
Public
in e d u c a t i o n and also
g r a m m a r , high s c h o o l , and c o l l e g e
education
and
educational
Government
education
system to
the
of E d u c a t i o n
and
the federal
Council
of
school
is r e s p o n s i b l e
for
system as a w h o l e .
enacted
legislations
which established guidelines
for primary and secondary
teaching.
Primary teaching
includes an eight-year
scholastic term.
The
secondary school
comprises a three-year
scholastic term.
A
characteristic of the reform of high
school
education
therefore, to provide a professional
q u a l i f i c a t i o n at
is,
high-school
level.
A new university teaching law determined
the
concerning the country's u n i v e r s i t i e s . This l e g i s l a t i o n
set
guidelines for the academic and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
activities
the u n i v e r s i t i e s , and dealt with the following
matters:
definition of t e a c h i n g , research, and e x t e n s i o n
creation of a d e p a r t m e n t
teaching
professional;
system as a way to simplify and
academic activity; adoption of a r e g i s t e r
of
objectives
related to university academic a c t i v i t y ; university
methods based on two c y c l e s , the basic and the
reform
system by
motivate
semester;
adoption of a system of credits as a m e a s u r e of a c a d e m i c
acti vi ty.
After completing
university
studies
years) a student receives a diploma conferring
Bachelor
(three to six
the degree
in law, philosophy, letters, etc; the degree
Licentiate
in the field of e d u c a t i o n
such as m e d i c i n e , e n g i n e e r i n g ,
, or a title
in professions
- T2C
Since the people of the world vary in
to certain d i s e a s e s as well
their
as their skin
hair type and head shape, the g e n e t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n of
population can influence
of
etc.
RACE AND HEREDITY
susceptibility
of
colour,
the
patterns of health and d i s e a s e . Though
few genes,
if any, are confined
in a race, in general
distant populations are from each o t h e r , the more
are their c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
extremes. They resemble the intervening
biological
the M e d i t e r r a n e a n .
and
are examples of
Semitic
peoples
Such g e n e t i c diversity
asset that has nothing
'superiority', or
distinctive
Between these, people of Central
South Africa and the C a u c a s i a n s of Scandinavia
surrounding
the more
is a
to do with ideas a b o u t racial
'inferiority'. A species whose
genetic
constitutions have altered when e n v i r o n m e n t changes as has
happened to the human s p e c i e s , is m o r e likely to
The v a r i a n t «in s u s c e p t i b i l i t y
part of the ethnic v a r i a t i o n
that affect the blood
survive.
to disease that
is best i l l u s t r a t e d by
(which is easy to study by
m i c r o s c o p i c m e t h o d s ) . Sickle-cell
diseases
chemical-
a n e m i a , for e x a m p l e ,
provides protection a g a i n s t m a l a r i a ,
peoples of the east, west and Central
is
which
is v i r t u a l l y confined to
African o r i g i n , and
isolated places in India. M e d i t e r r a n e a n
peoples suffer
to
from
t h a l a s s e m i a , a n o t h e r h e r e d i t a r y form of a n e m i a , that seems,
sickle-cell
anemia, to protect people from
malaria.
No such ready e x p l a n a t i o n can be found for
in susceptibility of Rh s e n s i t i z a t i o n
contrasts
between peoples of
north and those of Africa and Asia. Among
Europeans, 15
cent of the population have R h - n e g a t i v e b l o o d ; among
Because the components of the R h - n e g a t i v e factors are
resulting
the
per
South
African negroes only 5%; among C h i n e s e and Japanese only
differently
like
2%.
combined
in the blood of European m o t h e r s , the risk of anemia
from Rh s e n s i t i z a t i o n
is even g r e a t e r for
children than the high proportion
of the Rh-negative
European
blood
suggests.
The importance of some ethnic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
only in certain e n v i r o n m e n t s . The tall, thin shape of the
of Equatorial
A f r i c a , for e x a m p l e , is an a d v a n t a g e
climate: larger body surfaces
efficient heat loss.
heat preserving
emerges
tribes
in their hot
in relation to body w e i g h t mean
In the A r c t i c , Eskimo body
types are
short,
physiques. The dark pigment of the African
skins
helps to protect against s u n b u r n , but it also reduces Vitamin D
formed in the skin through exposure
to the tropical
sun. Racial
and genetic variation is clearly important to health, and
must take this into account. But the m a j o r i t y of human
affects all races, and the environmental
genetic
forces
doctors
sickness
in general outweigh
factors.
1.2. Speci fi c Texts
1.2.1. Texts translated by the Physics
TIP - Text number 1
ELECTRIC
The electric m o t o r
helpful m o d e r n inventions.
machinery
-
Group
Physics
MOTORS
is u n d o u b t e d l y
one of the most
It is used in factories to drive
for electric t r a i n s , for t r o l l e y - b u s e s
such everyday
and to
things as food m i x e r s , p o l i s h e r s , vacuum
record players, drills, sewing m a c h i n e s and electric
than steam e n g i n e s , or petrol
engines.
It is simple
One
little wear and tear. It can be
started, speeded up, slowed down and s t o p p e d .
reason
efficient
to w o r k ; it
does not shake, it is fairly s i l e n t ; it has few moving
and therefore gets
cleaners,
razors.
W h a t makes this sort of m o t o r so popular?
is its e f f i c i e n c y . Figures show that it is much more
power
parts,
easily
In fact for m o s t
purposes
it is ideal.
The electric motor has one great d i s a d v a n t a g e ;
has to be supplied with e l e c t r i c i t y .
it
It must either be connected
to an electric supply line or to a very heavy battery. This is
why the electric motor is unsuitable
for cars, motor cycle and
so on. But many machines do not need to be moved a b o u t , or
any rate they can be attached to a power point. For all
at
these
machines the electric motor can be used.
T2P - Text number 2
-
Physics
CORROSION
This
is the slow, gradual
attack made on the
surfaces
of metals and alloys by the a t m o s p h e r e or by the w a t e r . The
known example
is the rusting of ordinary iron and s t e e l , but m o s t
metals corrode, though
some more slowly than o t h e r s . Tens
thousands of iron and steel
are washed
in Great Britain
of
into the sea as rust from
the United Kingdom alone, and at least £50 m i l l i o n
annually
best
in preventing
is spent
corrosion,
The processes that attack exposed m e t a l s , both
pure
metals and alloys are essentially c h e m i c a l . The s i m p l e s t of them
is tarnishing, which
between the metal
is usually the result of a gentle
reaction
and a gas - that is, the a t m o s p h e r e around
Sometimes oxygen combines with the metal
frequently the air, containing
reacts with the metal
us.
to form an oxide: more
traces of sulphur
compounds,
to produce a thin layer of m e t a l i c
sulphide. The blackening
of silver and the darkening
arid brass are w e l l - k n o w n
examples of
tarnishing.
of copper
When a metal
surface and adheres
tarnishes something
is added to its
to it; but in c o r r o s i o n the metal
slowly eaten away. One cannot say that metal
corrosion better than another. The
always
'noble' m e t a l s ,
gold, and silver resist corrosive attack
is
usually
resists
platinum,
from either the
atmosphere or sea w a t e r ; but these are far too expensive to be
used by engineers
except in very special
cases. Stainless
steel
also resists corrosion in many c i r c u m s t a n c e s , though not in all,
but it, too, is
expensive.
T3P - T e x t number 3 - Physics
MATERIALS
Material
can be defined as the substance of which
a thing consists or is m a d e . We use a great variety of materials
Some of these materials
have unique
properties. Some are
others are soft, light, heavy, b r i t t l e , e l a s t i c ,
hard,
colourful,
'opaque, etc.
C o n s i d e r the variety of m a t e r i a l s
Wood is used in furniture because
hard-wearing.
Porcelain
it is easy
is used for dishes
used every
day.
to shape and is
as it can be
easily
washed and is s tain-resi s tant. Clothes are made of cloth
can be sewn, shaped, dyed with ease. Paper, cheap to
produce
and easy to write or print on, is used in the m a n u f a c t u r e
.books. Nowadays
plastic is used in i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t i e s .
is light, c o l o u r f u l , easy to clean and
of
It
safe.
Not only do we choose s p e c i f i c m a t e r i a l s
jobs but particular grades of these m a t e r i a l s may be
Thus a special
that
kind of wood may be used, for a certain
for
certain
specified.
purpose.
Newsprint
owing to its relative
Doubtless
in his requirements
is used in the production of
newspapers
cheapness.
as man becomes more and more sophisticated
there will
be need for continual
to provide a wider range of new and better
research
mateirals.
T4P - Text number 4 - Physics
CONCRETE
Nowadays the skeleton or frame of a building
usually either made o f structural
Concrete
is made by mixing
and water.
steel
or reinforced
together small
is
concrete.
s t o n e s , sand, cement
It can be made by hand but it is usually m i x e d in a
rotating cylinder. When it is ready it is poured
into molds
made of wood or m e t a l . The stones t h a t are mixed
in
concrete give the m i x t u r e
the
s t r e n g t h ; the sand fills the
between the stones a n d the c e m e n t secures the mixture
The less water we use to mix c e m e n t , the
it will
be. The d i f f i c u l t y h o w e v e r
is needed
together.
stronger
is that it is m u c h m o r e
difficult to mix if little water is used. When very
concrete
spaces
strong
it is mixed with a m i n i m u m of w a t e r ,
placed
in forms or molds and then "vibrated" with metal
bars
operate from e l e c t r i c i t y or c o m p r e s s e d air. This
vibration
removes air bubbles and produces a good
mixture.
Engineers r e i n f o r c e c o n c r e t e w i t h steel
to make
it resistant to bending. These metal
put in the molds before the concrete
that
and wire
reinforcements
is poured
in.
are
Usually in a concrete b e a m , much of the
simply holds the steel
reinforcement
used much more e f f e c t i v e l y
subject to an external
if it is
in position.
It can be
'stressed' before
load. C o n c r e t e can be
two ways. In the first m e t h o d , the concrete
stretched steel
concrete
being
'pre-stressed'in
is poured
around
wires which are released only w h e n the
has set. The other m e t h o d is to pour the concrete
polythene t u b e s . When the concrete
sets, steel
concrete
around
wires are
through the tubes and stretched. This is called
'built
pulled
in'
stress.
In order to save t i m e , m a n y builders prefer to use
a number of p r e f a b r i c a t e d
units. The use of p r e f a b r i c a t e d
units has made it possible
to build very
T5P - Text number 5
-
concrete
rapidly.
Physics
CAN LIFE EXIST ON THE P L A N E T S ?
(Part One)
(From chapter VII of THE U N I V E R S E AROUND US by SIR
JAMES J E A N S ,
.
F.R.S.)
A c t u a l l y we know of no type of astronomical
in which the conditions
like our own revolving
can be f a v o u r a b l e
to life except
system, for instance, it is hard to imagine
hard on the
In the
too
solar
life existing
since liquids boil on the former and
on
freeze
latter.
Even when all the r e q u i s i t e c o n d i t i o n s are
will
planets
around the sun. Even these m a y be
hot or too cold for life to obtain a footing.
Mercury or Neptune
body
life come or will
satisfied,
it not? We must probably discard the at
.one time w i d e l y accepted view that if once life had come
:the universe
in any way w h a t s o e v e r ,
into
it w o u l d rapidly spread
from
planet to planet and from one planetary system to another until
the whole universe teemed with life; space now seems too
and planetary systems
cold,
too far a p a r t .
T 6 P - Text number 6 -
Physics
"CAN LIFE EXIST ON THE PLANETS?
(Part
two)
Our .terres tri a 1 life m u s t in all probability
have
-originated on the earth itself. What we should like to know is
^whether it originated as the result of some amazing
or success ion of coincidences
or w h e t h e r it is the normal
'.for inanimate m a t t e r to produce
physical
environment
accident
event
life in due course when the
is suitable. We look to the b i o l o g i s t
-the a n s w e r , which so far he has not been able to produce.
A p a r t from the certain k n o w l e d g e
on e a r t h , our only definite
knowledge
that life
for
...
exists
is that, at the best,
:life m u s t be limited to a ti ny fraction of the
universe.
Millions of millions of stars exist w h i c h s u p p o r t no life, which
have never done so and never will
do so. Of the
systems in the sky, many m u s t be entirely
planetary,
lifeless,
others life, if it. exists at all, is probably
and in
limited to a few
rof the planets .
T7P - Test number 7 .- Physics
T H E QUANTUM THEORY OF
RADIATION
- ( F r o m - c h a p t e r VII of AN A P P R O A C H TO M O D E R N
PHYSICS
by.E.N.
DA C. A N D R A D E )
(Part one)
Now, before the quantum theory was put
there was no notion of natural
forward,
units of radiant energy:
it was
believed that we could have any amount o f energy, as small
as
we pleased, radiated by a hot body or a luminous atom. It could
h o w e v e r , be shown m a t h e m a t i c a l l y that, if this were true,
we
should expect a hot body to radiate nearly all
in
its energy
the violet and u l t r a - v i o l e t end of the s p e c t r u m , which we
to be against the facts of
know
observation.
The problem was solved
in the first year of the
-present century, when Planck showed t h a t , to get the
result, it was necessary to make a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
right
hypothesis:
to suppose that radiant energy was sent out in p a c k e t s , as it
were - in units or atoms of energy, just as m a t t e r existed
atomic units. We cannot have less than an atom of lead,
any minute piece of lead must consist of a whole
say;
number
atoms. We cannot have an electric charge of less than an
In the same way, we cannot have less than z unit - or
in
of
electron.
quantum,
as it is called - of radiant e n e r g y , and any body that sends
or absorbs radiation m u s t deal with one q u a n t u m or a whole
of
out
number
quanta.
The little parcel
of light of one
frequency in which radiant energy is d e l i v e r e d
particular
is
sometimes
called a 'light dart', a very e x p r e s s i v e term, but it is more
generally
known as a photon. The photon is simply a quantum of
radiant energy, the only o b j e c t of sometimes using the new term
being that
'quantum'
is a more, inclusive term, w h i c h can
applied to other things as well
be
as light - for instance - to
the vibration of whole atoms and m o l e c u l e s .
T8P - Text number 8 - Physics
THE QUANTUM THEORY OF R A D I A T I O N
(Part
two)
The quantum of radiant energy differs from
quantum of e l e c t r i c i t y , the e l e c t r o n ,
the
in a very important way.
The amount of charge is the same on all e l e c t r o n s : there
but one unit. The m a g n i t u d e of this unit of radiant
energy,
however, is different for every d i f f e r e n t w a v e - l e n g t h
radiation.
It is, in fact, proportional
is
of
to the f r e q u e n c y , so
that the quantum of energy of extreme visible red radiation is
only half that of the extreme v i s i b l e violet r a d i a t i o n , which,
as we have said before, hîs double the f r e q u e n c y . The
of an X - r a d i a t i o n
visible
quantum
is very much g r e a t e r than the quantum of any
radiation.
The quantum of energy c o r r e s p o n d i n g
species of r a d i a t i o n
is f o u n d , t h e n , by m u l t i p l y i n g
by a certain fixed number, which
c o n s t a n t , and always
to a given
is called Planck's
the
universal
indicated by Ih. Planck's c o n s t a n t
into every aspect of modern atomic physics and its
frequency
enters
numerical
value has been found by at least ten d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s ,
involving
such things as X-ray p r o p e r t i e s , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of energy in
b l a c k - b o d y r a d i a t i o n , the frequencies
on. All
in ten
of spectral
the m e t h o d s give values agreeing
lines, and so
to w i t h i n a few
parts
thousand.
Light, then, or r a d i a t i o n
in g e n e r a l , has a packet
property as well
as a wave property, and this is one of the
paradoxes of physics. Newton's c o n c e p t i o n of light was a stream
of particles, which he endowed with something
pulsating
properties
in the nature of
in an attempt to account for
certain
phenomena which we can now easily explain on the wave
theory.
He felt the need for the double a s p e c t , the particle and the
periodic, and provided for it in his
T9P - Text number 9
PARTICLES OR
-
theory.
Physics
WAVES?
(From THE M Y S T E R I O U S U N I V E R S E by James
Jeans)
(Part one)
The m o s t obvious fact about a ray of light, at any
rate to superficial
observation,
a straight line; everyone
of a sunbeam
is its tendency to travel
is familiar with the straight
in a dusty room. As a rapidly-moving
matter also tends to travel
in
edges
particle of
in a straight line, the
early
scientists, rather naturally, thought of light as a stream of
particles thrown out from a 'luminous s o u r c e , like shot from a
gun. Newton adopted this v i e w , and added precision to it in his
'corpuscular
theory of
light'.
Yet it is a matter of c o m m o n o b s e r v a t i o n that
ray of light does not always travel
be abruptly turned by r e f l e c t i o n ,
in a straight line.
It can
such as occurs when it falls
on the surface of a m i r r o r . Or its path m a y be bent by
suchas
a
refraction
occurs when it enters water or any liquid m e d i u m ;
it is
refraction t h a t makes our oar look broken at the point where
it
enters the w a t e r , and makes
the river look s h a l l o w e r
proves to be w h e n we step into it. Even in Newton's
laws which governed these phenomena w e r e well
of reflection the angle at which
than it
time the
known.
In the case
the ray of light struck
mirror was exactly the same as that at w h i c h it came off
the
after
r e f l e c t i o n ; in case of r e f r a c t i o n , the sine of the angle of
incidence stood in a c o n s t a n t ratio to the sine of the angle
of
refraction.
HOP
- Text number 10 PARTICLES OR W A V E S ?
Physics
tPzrt
two)
Newton's corp'uscular theory m e t its doom in the
fact
that when a ray of light falls on the surface of w a t e r , only
part of it is refracted. The r e m a i n d e r is r e f l e c t e d , and it is
this latter part that produces
the ordinary
reflections
of objects
in a lake, or the ripple of m o o n l i g h t on the sea. It was
objected
that Newton's theory failed to a c c o u n t for this reflection,
for
if light had c o n s i s t e d of c o r p u s c l e s , the forces at the surface
of the water ought to have t r e a t e d all
w h e n a corpuscle was r e f r a c t e d all
the corpuscles
alike;
ought to b e , and this
water with no power to reflect the s u n , m o o n or stars.
tried to obviate this o b j e c t i o n by a t t r i b u t i n g
transmission and reflection'
corpuscle which fell
left
Newton
'alternate fits
to the surface of the water - the
on the surface at one instant was
admitted,
but the next instant the gates w e r e s h u t , and its companion was
turned away to form reflected
and strikingly
light. This c o n c e p t was
a n t i c i p a t o r y of m o d e r n quantum theory
strangely
in its
a b a n d o n m e n t of the u n i f o r m i t y of nature and its r e p l a c e m e n t
determinism by p r o b a b i l i t i e s , but i;t f a i l e d to carry
at the
time.
of
of
conviction
TUP
-
Text number 11
-
THE THEORY OF CONTINUOUS
Physics
CREATION
(From c h a p t e r V of THE NATURE OF THE U N I V E R S E by
Fred
Hoyle)
We must move on to consider the explanations
have been offered for this expansion of the un i verse.
speaking, the older ideas fall
that
Broadly
into two groups. One was
that
the universe started its life a finite time ago in a single
explosión, and that the present expansion
huge
is a relic of the
violence of this explosion. This big' bang idea seemed to me to
be unsatisfactory
even before detailed e x a m i n a t i o n
it leads to serious d i f f i c u l t i e s .
showed
that
For when we look at our own
galaxy there is not the smallest sign that such an
explosion
ever occurred. But the really serious d i f f i c u l t y arises when we
try to reconcile
the idea of an e x p l o s i o n with the
that the galaxies have condensed out of diffuse
requirement
background
material. The two concepts of e x p l o s i o n and c o n d e n s a t i o n
are
obviously c o n t r a d i c t o r y , and it is easy to show, provided
that
you postulate an explosion of s u f f i c i e n t violence to explain
expansion o f the u n i v e r s e , that condensations looking
the galaxies could never have been
at all
the
like
formed.
T12P - Test number 12 - Physics
ATOMIC RADIATION AND
LIFE
The r a d i a t i o n dose given off by an X-ray machine
by isotopes
is usually m e a s u r e d by determining
the number
or
of
ions produced in a volume of gas. Since
charge there are a number of extremely
these carry an
electric
delicate methods by which
they can be' d e t e c t e d . The widely used Geiger counter
consists
essentially
tube, so
of a wire stretched inside a cylindrical
arranged that an electric c u r r e n t can pass between the wire
the tube only when there are ions in the gas.
when an ionizing particle passes through
Consequently,
the tube, an
à
signal
is given out. In this way the number of
particles
electric
.
ionizing
given off by a radio-active source can be
accurately
counted. This is called the activity of the m a t e r i a l .
measured in a unit called the
It is
'curie' after the d i s c o v e r e r
radium. The activity of one gram of radium together with
decay products
disintegrates
is equal
and
of
its
to one curie. Every time an atom
a b e t a - or a l p h a - r a y is given off together w i t h
a certain amount o^ gamma radiation. T h e activity
in curies
can tell us nothing about the dose of radiation given off by
the radio-active m a t e r i a l , since the curie m e a s u r e s
number of ionizing
only
the
particles e m i t t e d , i n d e p e n d e n t of their
range
or energy.
(From c h a p t e r I of A T O M I C RADIATION AND LIFE, by
Peter A l e x a n d e r . )
1.2.2. Texts t r a n s l a t e d by the Nursing
Group
TIN - Text number 1 - Nursing
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
We have a number of special
nerves w h i c h pick up
information from the outside world and send it back
to the
brain.
The eye has special
nerves which are sensitive to. light. At the
back of the eyeball
there.is a layer called the
millions of nerve cells which
'retina'
containing
react to light rays, almost
the film in a camera. The lens of the eye puts a sharp
like
picture
of the outer w o r l d on the nerve cells of the retina. Each cell
which sees a spot of light sends a signal
back to the
brain,
j
where the pictures are put together as a complete mental
In the ear are nerves which react only to the
picture.
energy
of sound waves in the air. The outer ear helps to collect
sound waves and c o n c e n t r a t e
them on the eardrum. The
flexible drum moves back and forth
The tiny vibrations
of small
shell-like
thin,
in time with the sound
on the eardrums
bones to the inner ear.
waves.
are passed through a series
In the inner ear is a spiral,
structure - the cochlea. Each nerve in this
reacts to the sound waves of only one f r e q u e n c y . The
recognizes the signals
the
structure
brain
from these nerves as s o u n d - m u s i c ,
the
h u m a n ' v o i c e , thunder, the dinner bell, etc. The inner ear also
contains
a special
group of nerves that are not c o n n e c t e d with
the sense of hearing. These nerves are a t t a c h e d to three
d o u g h n u t - s h a p e d hollow tubes called the
'semicircular
tiny
canals'.
All three tubes are filled w i t h a liquid. When you move your
head, the liquid m o v e s , too. The signals from these nerves
us to keep our
balance.
Other kinds of nerves
in the tongue and in the
detect the presence of certain m o l e c u l e s . Thus, we can
and smell
help
different
substances. Special
the skin detect heat, cold, pressure
nose
taste
kinds of nerve cells
or pain. These nerves
in
are
very closely packed together
i ri the f i n g e r t i p s but are more
separated on the back and other
less sensitive areas of the
body.
Most of the cells in the nerve system are in the
cerebrum. This part of the brain is deeply folded and
into left and right hemispheres The cerebrum
divided
is the part of
the brain that receives the signals of sight and
sound.
».
T2N - Text number 2 - Nursing
LATEST
IN HEALTH AND
MEDICINE
For the first time solid evidence linking
the
incurable disease multipie^ selerosis with an infectious
has been found by reseachers
in New York and P e n n s y l v a n i a . The
malady attacks the brain and the spinal
appear
in victims
virus
cord. Symptoms
in their 30 1 s. Speech becomes
casually
slurred.
The
eyeballs flick up and down and back and forth. Gradually
the
victim loses eye sight and becomes
progressively
paralyzed.
Only in the last few y e a r s have s c i e n t i s t s found clues to what
causes MS.
In 1972 , Dr. R. I. Carp and c o l l e a g e s at the Institute
of Research on Mental
with material
R e t a r d a t i o n , Staten
Island, injected
from the brain and other tissues of MS
mice
patients
and d i s c o v e r e d a r e s u l t a n t drop in the white blood cells - a
sign of virus infection. They also found that the viral
multiplied
in the brains of test animals and could be
from mouse to m o u s e . Now, a h u s b a n d - a n d - w i f e
agent
transmitted
team, Drs.
Werner
and Gertrude Henle, in P h i l a d e l p h i a , has c o n f i r m e d the
presence
of this virus in similar tests with rats, hamsters and
guinea
pigs. They also detected
the virus
in the blood of MS
patients.
"We still do not know.if this virus
is the main virus
that
causes MS", caution the Henles. "It is only a c a n d i d a t e " .
Establishing
MS as an infectious disease poses a
basic question: Why do some people get MS while o t h e r s ,
perhaps
members of the same family do not? The answer may lie in the
discovery by the researchers
that the blood of nurses
relatives who tend MS patients carries an a n t i b o d y
the
and
against
disease.
In East A f r i c a , where MS is v i r t u a l l y u n k n o w n , the
population
in general
has this same antibody
in the
blood,
indicating
that the people were once infected but developed
an
immunity.
Scientists know that MS follows c e r t a i n
It is, for example, more prevalent in temperate
tropical
regions, and occurs
patterns.
zones than in
in i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries
often than in u n d e r d e v e l o p e d
more
nations.
One theory is that in the l e s s - d e v e l o p e d
the MS virus
strikes a l m o s t all
establishing
a basic
nations
the p o p u l a t i o n at an early
age,
immunity.
These studies on MS a n t i b o d i e s suggest that the virus
is much more w i d e s p r e a d than the disease
occur only in individuals
genetically
itself and that MS may
or o t h e r w i s e
predisposed
to it.
T3N
-
Text number 3
-
Nursing
The lymph drainage system of the right c o l o n ,
almost
all the way to the left colic f l e x u r e , goes first to the
marginal
lymph nodes and then to the lymph node stations located
along the right colic a r t e r i e s all the way to their point of
origin from the superior m e s e n t e r i c a r t e r y . So the
lymphatic
hilus of the right and t r a n s v e r s e colon is r e p r e s e n t e d
by lymph
nodes placed at the root of the m i d d l e colic artery. The
drainage system of the descending
lymph
c o l o n , sigmoid c o l o n , and
»
rectum goes first to the marginal
lymph nodes and then to the
lymph nodes located at the root of the inferior
artery, which represents the l y m p h a t i c
mesenteric
hilus of the left
half
of the colon. The next e m p l a c e m e n t s of lymphatic drainage
the lymph node stations
are
located on either side and in front of
the aorta and inferior vena
cava.
•Tumors of the anus and anal
along the lymphatics, m e t a s t a s i z e
canal, as they
also
diffuse
into the inguinal
lymph
nodes.
T4N
-
T e x t number 4
-
ACUTE RESPIRATORY
Nursing
FAILURE
(From CURRENT T H E R A P Y , 1975, section 2, p. 86)
Respiratory
failure results from i m p a i r m e n t of gas
exchange between a l v e o l a r air and blood. When the impairment is
severe, gas exchange will
be i n a d e q u a t e
needs; this leads to c a r b o n d i o x i d e
high partial
to m e e t the
patients'
retention, reflected
pressure of carbon d i o x i d e in the arterial
and hypoxemia when the patient is b r e a t h i n g
failure may be either acute or
by
blood
room air. Respiratory
chronic.
Lung disease, p a r t i c u l a r l y
chronic o b s t r u c t i v e
lung
disease, is often thought to be synonymous with
failure. However, one should remember
an integrated feedback
control
respiratory
that r e s p i r a t i o n
system which
requires
involves the central
nervous system, respiratory m u s c l e s , thoracic cage and upper
airways. Disease of any portion of the system m a y . l e a d to
inadequate ventilation and r e s p i r a t o r y failure. Table 1 enumerates
diseases which commonly cause r e s p i r a t o r y
Diseases of brain
Brain
failure...
Examples
Intracranial
bleeding
Cerebrovascular
Head
Spinal
cord
accidents
trauma
Pol i omyeli ti s
Gui 11 a i n - B a r r ë
Spinal
cord
syndrome
trauma
C e r v i c a l , vertebral
fracture
Chest wall
Rib fracture with flail
Upper
Tumor of
airways
cords
Laryngospasm
Lower airways and
lungs
Bronchi t i s
Asthma
Emphysema
Severe
Heart
pneumonias
Congestive
heart
failure
chest
T5N " -
Text number'5
- Nursing
CYSTITIS
Cystitis rarely
is a primary c o n d i t i o n .
It usually
is secondary to an infection of the k i d n e y , prostate or urethra.
The bladder epithelium normally
is highly resistant to
but continued drainage of infected urine from a
infection,
pyelonephritis,
»
infected drainage from an e p i d i d y m o v e s i c u l i ti s or
prolonged
prostatitis,
irritation from foreign bodies or c a l c u l i ,
ascending
infection from a diseased u r e t h r a , or p r e v e n t i o n of normal
bladder emptying
by a h y p e r t r o p h i e d
p r o s t a t e , urethral
or neurogenic d i s t u r b a n c e , may so wear down tissue
that disease
is e s t a b l i s h e d .
stricture,
resistance
Following major surgical
procedures,
chi 1dbirth . and prolonged bed rest, lowered r e s i s t a n c e ,
plus
inadequate bladder e m p t y i n g , predispose to the d e v e l o p m e n t
of
cystitis.
T6N
-
Text number 6
TREATMENT
Acute renal
-
Nursing
OF A C U T E RENAL
FAILURE
failure may be a v o i d e d by preventing
occurrence of, or m i n i m i z i n g
the
the d u r a t i o n and severity of shock,
tissue injury, or sepsis. F l u i d s , pressor a g e n t s , or blood
should be a d m i n i s t e r e d
restoration
liberally until
of c i r c u l a t o r y
it is clear that
i n t e g r i t y , m a r k e d oliguria
T h e r e a f t e r , continued a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
in the presence of pronounced renal
is; persisting.
of large volumes of fluid
damage will
lead to
overhydration. In the event of h e m o l y t i c reaction after
transfusion, the severity of s u b s e q u e n t acute tubular
is inversely proportional
despite
to the degree of
hydration.
mismatched
necrosis
<
T7N - Text number 7
-
Nursing
LIVER AND BILIARY
TRACT
The liver, the largest secreting
organ
possesses a major degree of reserve functional
resistance to damage by noxious
s u b s t a n c e s , and
in the
body,
capacity, unusual
extraordinary
powers of r e g e n e r a t i o n . Up to 80% of the liver cells may
damaged w i t h o u t producing severe s y m p t o m s , and c o m p l e t e
may ensue. The functions
information concerning
of the liver are m a n y , but
them
The functional
is far from
be
recovery
accurate
complete.
unit of the liver, the hepatic
may be considered as a tube
lobule,
(bile c a p i l l a r y ) the walls of which
are in j u x t a p o s i t i o n with cords of liver cells; one end
empties
into a bile duct, while the other end is c l o s e d . Bile is excreted
from small
canaliculi
into the larger c a p i l l a r y and thence
the duct. Blood from the portal
into
vein enters one end of this
filters past and between the cords of liver c e l l s , and exits
unit,
into
the hepatic vein. Blood from the h e p a t i c artery supplies the cells
and also empties
T8N
into the hepatic
-
Text number 8
vein.
-
Nursing
BRONCHITIS
In the usual
part of a general
infectious
f o r m , acute bronchitis
acute upper r e s p i r a t o r y
is
infection. Onset may
develop from the common cold, or from a pyogenic or virus
infection of the n a s o p h a r y n x , t h r o a t , or tracheobronquial
Acute bronchitis
Predisposing
is m o s t prevalent
tree.
inwinter.
or c o n t r i b u t o r y factors are e x p o s u r e ,
chilling,
fatigue, m a l n u t r i t i o n , rickets. It is commonly a mild
but may be serious
in d e b i l i t a t e d
patients and those with
chronic pulmonary or cardiac d i s e a s e ; the special
the development of
disease,
danger is
pneumonia.
Recurring attacks s u g g e s t a focus of i n f e c t i o n , such
as
chronic s i n u s i t i s , b r o n c h i e c t a s i s
hypertrophied tonsils
or, in
children,
and adenoids. A l l e r g i c factors
frequently
#
are important. Acute bronchial
be caused by such physical
i r r i t a t i o n and i n f l a m m a t i o n may
and chemical
irritants
as mineral
and vegetable dusts of various k i n d s , strong acid fumes,
certain volatile organic s o l v e n t s , c h l o r i n e , h y d r o g e n
sulfur dioxide, or b r o m i n e . Tobacco smoke
a tracheobronchial
irritant for many
Ost
ammonia,
sulfide,
or 2nd hand)
is
individuals.
(/rom THE M E R C K MANUAL OF DIAGNOSIS AND T H E R A P Y , p.
1306)
T9N - Text number 9. - Nursing
,
HABITUAL
ABORTION
Defined as three successive
spontaneous
this is uncommon (0.33 per cent) and requires
abortions,
a more comprehensive
evaluation of the couple to rule out s y s t e m i c , e n d o c r i n e
cytogenetic factors.
(luteal
In the first t r i m e s t e r endocrine
deficiencies
phase of steroid p r o d u c t i o n } are the more common
In the second trimester the cause is usually a n a t o m i c
of either congenital
or p a t h o l o g i c o r i g i n .
or
factors.
factors
If these are
not
recognized, they serve as the basis for repeated abortions
m o s t often require surgical
produce habitual
treatment. The anomalies
a b o r t i o n are septate or b i c o r n u a t e
uteri; the double or didelphic uterus will
usually
which
that may
unicollis
carry pregnancies
to term. A fixed retrodis piaced u t e r u s , resulting either
adhesions
from e n d o m e t r i o s i s
process, o c c a s i o n a l l y
or from an old healed
from
inflammatory
plays a part. Submucous f i b r o i d s m a y be
a silent or symptomatic
cause.
( F r o m - C U R R E N T T H E R A P Y , 1975. p. 716)
T10N
-
Text number 10
PLACENTA
Placenta previa
-
Nursing
PREVIA
is a term used to d e s c r i b e
implantation
of the placenta within the lower uterine s e g m e n t . This
occurs in 0.5 to 1.0 per' cent of pregnancies
trimester; a higher
incidence
in the
in early pregnancy
by the fact that the c o n d i t i o n
phenomenon
third
is
explained
is f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d
early a b o r t i o n . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of placenta
previa
depends
on the degree of c o v e r a g e of the lower uterine s e g m e n t .
placenta previa centralis
the internal
cervical
placenta
encroachment
upon the os;low
is used to d e s c r i b e
the lower uterine
increasing
previa; the c o n d i t i o n
vascularization
shortly after
indicates
implantation of
the
placentas which are a t t a c h e d to
segment. A d v a n c i n g maternal
parity predispose
In
os is totally
occluded by the p l a c e n t a ; placenta previa marginal is
a partial
with
age and
to the d e v e l o p m e n t of
is perhaps related
placenta
to d e f e c t i v e
of the decidua or u n f a v o r a b l e
uterine
environment
conception.
T11N
-
T e x t number 11
-
Nursing
PYELONEPHRITIS
The most c o m m o n variety of interstitial
nephritis
is that of bacterial
origin, c o m m o n l y referred to as
pyelonephritis. U n f o r t u n a t e l y
bacterial
interstitial
nephritis
nephritis have become s y n o n y m o u s
irrespective of the presence of urinary
of.cases of interstitial
renal
in many
and
circles
infection. The majority
disease are due either to
urinary o b s t r u c t i o n or to infection of the renal
both. Unlike other n e p h r o p a t i e s , interstitial
parenchyma
nephritis
or
is
» .
usually patchy in its d i s t r i b u t i o n
so that one finds
areas alternating with healthy or much less diseased
This becomes an
important ¡diagnostic point for the
of chronic d i s e a s e , in that cortical
a t r o p h y , with
d i s e a s e , may be noted radi ographical l.y by
urography. A l s o , renal
Text number 12
.1975 p. 480)
- Nursing
FAILURE
The p r e s e n t a t i o n of acute renal
ways;
failure may
it may be d e c e p t i v e and subtle with
awareness of the gravity of the s i t u a t i o n by the
precipitated by serious
gross chemical
occur
ultimate
physician
symptoms of uremia or evidence
derangement;
an observed decrease
a situation
recurrent
pathology.
A C U T E RENAL
in several
treatment
intravenous
(From C U R R E N T T H E R A P Y ,
-
areas.
biopsy has been of much less help than
in the study of g l o m e r u l a r
T12N
diseased
of
it may be immediately apparent by
in the urine o u t p u t ; or it may occur
known to result in renal
attempts at prevention. A c u t e renal
sense represents the r e l a t i v e l y
in
failure despite the best
failure
sudden
in its
broadest
inability of the
to excrete the necessary amounts of w a t e r , salts
kidneys
(sodium and
potassium) acids, and products of m e t a b o l i s m
accumulation of these substances
T13N
-
so that an
occurs.
T e x t number 13
-
Nursing
DYSPEPSIA
Indigestion may be caused by organic disease in the
gastrointestinal
tract and by many diseases
elsewhere. Consideration will
originating
be given here m a i n l y to
that occur in the absence of d e m o n s t r a b l e organic
disease.
Common causes are eating too much or too
inadequate m a s t i c a t i o n
eating during
swallowing
emotional
(frequently due to poor
symptoms
rapidly,
dentition)
upsets or severe mental
strain, and
large amounts of air. Other factors are
excessive
smoking; c o n s t i p a t i o n ; and ingestion of poorly cooked
foods,
those with high fat content and others such as c u c u m b e r s ,
radishes
C e »9* b e a n s , c a b b a g e , t u r n i p s ,
onions).
and gas-forming
vegetables
Most of the symptoms result from altered
gastric
motor activity. Fats inhibit such a c t i v i t y , decrease
lower gastric tone and prolong gastric emptying time.
peristalsis,
Moderate
distension of the stomach stimulates m o t i l i t y , while
marked
d i s t e n s i o n , such as occurs from overeating., inhibits
motility
and may produce a sensation of epigastric d i s t e n s i o n and
and nausea. Nervousness
and a n x i e t y tend to increase
while fear, shock, d e p r e s s i o n , pain and physical
to inhibit it and reduce gastric
tone.
fullness
peristalsis,
fatigue
tend
T14N
-
Text number 14
-
Nursing
CALCULI
The cause is unknown. Calculi
the renal
papillae as small
probably b e g i n
on
plaques which break free and act as
nuclei around which urinary salts are
precipitated.
The.size of a c a l c u l u s varies from very small
gravel
»
to a large stag-horn stone which may fill
the renal
pelvis.
Calcium oxalate stones u s u a l l y are small, dark, rough and hard,
while calcium phosphate
stones tend to be soft, w h i t e ,
and frequently stag-horn, in shape. Uric acid stones
are small
calculi
and y e l l o w but they may be of any color.
chalky
commonly
Cystine
have a w a x y , almost t r a n s p a r e n t a p p e a r a n c e . Calculi
be multiple and bilateral. M i g r a t i o n
of a stone may
o b s t r u c t i o n with resultant, s t a s i s , infection and
cause
clinical
manifestations.
Persistent or repeated obstruction
pyonephrosis or
hydronephrosis.
leads to
may
. -
APPENDIX
2
2. Errors
2.1. General
list of errors
in ngps.
2.1.1. All types of errors
in nominal
common to both groups of
TIC - Both
Text
-
groups in texts
students
groups
EDUCATION
IN BRAZIL
» •
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
62
(Nursing Group:
38)
(Physics G r o u p :
24)
THE CHANGING
1.
as necessidades e m u d a n ç a s
2.
as mudanças
3.
as necessidades
4.
as mudanças
5.
mudanças nas
6.
mudanças
7.
as
NEEDS
(5)
(15)
necessárias
de m u d a n ç a s
(7)
(1)
necessidades
d)
precisas
C2)
necessidades
(4)
THE COUNTRY'S D E V E L O P M E N T A L
8.
o necessário d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o
9.
o desenvolvimento
NEEDS
do paîs
(5)
do país
(5)
10.
o d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o que o país
precisa
11 .
as necessidades
do
12.
as necessidades
desenvolvimentais
13.
o desenvolvimento
14.
as necessidades
15.
o desenvolvimento
16.
em país em necessidade
d)
país
C4)
necessário
do
país
do país
do d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o que o país precisa
de um novo
de
país
desenvolvimento
15)
C7Í
ü)
Cl).
cn
17.
as necessidades do pais em
desenvolvimento
18.
as necessidades de um pais
desenvolvido
19.
do pais que precisa se
20.
que os países desenvolvidos
21.
o desenvolvimento
22.
o pais do d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o
desenvolver
precisam
preciso do
preciso
TEACHING
23.
o ensino de leis
24.
o ensinamento de lei
25.
(para) ensinar
26.
a lei
país
LAW
lei
ensinando
THE PUBLIC A U T H O R I T Y ' S
RESPONSIBILITIES
27.
pública a u t o r i d a d e
responsável
28.
a responsabilidade
na educação das
autoridades
públicas
29.
os direitos de publicidade
30.
o governo público como
31.
públicas autoridades
32.
(ao) público as autoridades
responsáveis
responsável
responsáveis
responsabiliza
BOTH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
33.
ambos público e instituições
34.
público e privado
instituindo
35.
público e privado
instituto
36.
instituições
37.
ambos público e particular
38.
instituições
INSTITUTIONS
particulares
públicas e privada
instituições
público e privado
39.
em escolas pública e privadas
EDUCATIONAL
POLICY
40.
educação
policial
41.
(orientação) educacional
42.
prudencia
43.
censo educacional
(1)
44.
educação
(4)
45.
educacional
46.
educação e política
(2)
47.
política
(de orientação básica e) educacional
(3)
48.
política
(básica de) educação
(2)
49.
(1)
(básica) e política
educacional
(3)
(1)
política
política
•
(6)
HIGH-SCHOOL
(e o r i e n t a ç ã o )
LEVEL
alta escola de nível
(4)
FEDERAL
'
(2)
SCHOOL
SYSTEM
50.
?.s federais escolas do sistema
(2)
51.
o federal
(1)
e escolar sistema
THE NATIONAL
EDUCATIONAL
52.
o nacional
e educacional
53.
a nacional
educação
54.
a educação nacional
SYSTEM
sistema
(2)
do sistema
.
e o sistema
(3)
A NEW UNIVERSITY T E A C H I N G
55.
uma lei do novo ensino u n i v e r s i t á r i o
• 55.
uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e de e n s i n a m e n t o
57.
uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e ensinando
(4)
lei
LAW
(5)
de lei
(2)
O )
THE COUNTRY'S
UNIVERSITIES
58.
universidade estaduais
(1)
59.
os países dos universitarios
(2)
60.
cidades universitari as
(3)
61.
os países universitarios
(1)
62.
INCOMPLETE
(2)
ADMINISTRATIVE
63.
administração
64.
administrativas
ACTIVITIES
das atividades
(2)
e atividades
(1)
(RESEARCH AND) EXTENSION
OBJECTIVES
65.
objetivos
(da pesquisa e) extensão
(14)
66.
relação da duração do curso
(1)
6/.
extensão objetiva
(6)
68.
extensão de objetivos
69.
(investigar e) estender os objetivos
(1)
70.
obtenção de objetivos
(1)
71.
prorrogação de objetivos
(1)
72.
extensão dos objetivados
(1)
73.
extensão e objetivos
(1)
74.
(pesquisa e) extensão objetivos
(8)
(15)
UNIVERSITY'
ACADEMIC
«
ACTIVITIES
75.
os acadêmicso
universitarios
76.
atividades
77.
academia de atividades u n i v e r s i t a r i a s
(3)
78.
atividades u n i v e r s i t a r i a s .
(1)
na academia
universitaria
(1)
(2)
79.
atividades
acadêmica
universitária
80.
universidade de acadêmica
atividade
UNIVERSITY T E A C H I N G
(2)
(2)
METHODS
81.
universidade ensinando
métodos
(3)
82.
u n i v e r s i d a d e , ensino e m é t o d o s
(2)
DEPARTMENT
SYSTEM
83.
departamento
e sistema
(2 )
84.
departamento
de
O)
T2C
-
sistema
Both
RACE AND
Groups
HEREDITY
N9 of .translations:
62
(Nursing Group:
38)
(Physics Group:
2¿)
SKIN
COLOUR
1.
epiderme
colorida
2.
cor e pelo
O)
3.
pele e cor
C2)
4.
pele de cor
(3)
5.
pele
(3)
(2)
colorida
HAIR
TYPE
6.
c a b e l o , tipo
(2)
7.
cabelo do tipo
(3)
8.
cabelo
C2)
... HEAD
SHAPE
9.
cabeça moldada
(2)
10.
cabeça e forma
(2)
11 .
cabeça
(2)
NEGROID
RACES
12.
negros e raças
C2)
13.
negroide raças
(1)
14.
negros de raças
(2)
. THE INTERVENING S E M I T I C
PEOPLES
15.
a intervenção
semítica de povos
(4)
16.
os povos semíticos
17.
os povos semíticos s o b r e v i v e n t e s
(1)
18.
a pessoas semetic
(.3).
19.
intervendo
20.
a intervenção
-
(ou circundando)
pessoas
somática
(30)
O)
(51
BIOLOGICAL
ASSET
21.
a biologia avalia
(1 )
22.
afirma a bioïogia
(2)
23.
propriedade
(3)
24.
(ha) avaliação b i o l ó g i c a
25.
em biologia insistem
0 1
26.
a biologia
0 1
pessoal
insiste
HUMAN
27.
(6).
humana em espécies
SPECIES
O)
CHEMICAL-MICROSCOPIC
28.
microscopio
29.
métodos microssopieos
30.
métodos m i c r o s c ó p i c o s - q u í m i c o s
METHODS
químico
(3)
da química
SICKLE-CELL
(6)
(12)
ANEMIA
31.
célula em forma dé foice
(1)
32.
anemia aguda
(3)
33.
célula anémica
(6)
34.
foice-célula
de anemia
(1)
35.
sickle-célula
anémica
(2)
36.
sickle-célula
anemia
(2)
37.
"sickle-cell" anemia
(2)
'HEREDITARY
38.
hereditario
FORM
em forma
RH-NEGATIVE
(2)
FACTORS
39.
R h - n e g a t i v o , fatores
(2)
40.
Rh-negativo
(1)
e fatores
THE T A L L , THIN SHAPE
(OF SOME T R I B E S )
41.
os altos, os magros e forma
,
(2)
42.
toda forma magra
43.
o alto, magra forma
(3)
44.
o alto, delgada forma
(3)
45.
o alto, forma fina
(5)
46.
o elevado, aspectos de magreza
(.1 )
.0)
t
47.
a altura, forma
magra
(2)
LARGER BODY
SURFACES
48.
corpo largo
49 .
corpo mais largo de
50.
o mais largo corpo de
51 .
superficie do corpo
52.
corpo maior e superfície
(1)
53.
a maior superfície do
(2)
54.
maior corpo da
55.
corpo e faces
56.
largamente alguma
57.
em grande escala a s u p e r f í c i e do
superficialmente
(1)
superficie
(2)
superficie
(2)
maior
(4)
corpo
superfície
(5)
grandes
(1)
superfície
EFFICIENT
(1)
HEAT
corpo
(3)
LOSS
58.
eficiente calor e perda
(D
59.
eficiência
(D
do calor
perdido
SHORT HEAT PRESERVING
60.
corpos muito resistentes
61 .
pequeno para a conservação
62.
pequenos
63.
(tendendo a) preservar os corpos
64.
pequenos, preservando
o físico
(1)
65.
pequenos, preservando
o calor
(1)
66.
pouco calor os físicos
67.
pequenos, conservando es calores
68.
curtos, conservando
69.
pequenos
para o calor
ao
PHYSIQUES
calor
0)
do calor
(2)
preservar
(2)
fisicamente
(1)
preservam
o calor
que preserva calor
(1)
físicos
(2)
físico
físico.
(2)
.
(6)
70.
físicos baixo e preserva
calor
ENVIRONMENTAL
71.
ambiental
(4)
FORCES
forças
2.1.2. All
(1)
types of errors
administered
in nominal
to the Physics
TIP - Text number 1
-
MOTORS
24
THE ELECTRIC MOTOR
1.
in the texts
Group
ELECTRIC
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
groups
. .
a eletricidade do motor
(2)
(ONE OF) THE MOST HELPFUL MODERN
INVENTIONS
2.
uma ajuda da invenção moderna
(1)
3.
uma das mais modernas
(1)
4.
uma das invenções modernas mais útil
(1)
5.
uma das invenções moderna
(1)
6.
uma das mais útil
7.
uma das mais útil moderna
8;
uma das mais úteis e moderna
9.
uma das mais útil
e moderna
invenções
invenções
invenção
invenção m o d e r n a s
(2)
(1)
(1)
(1)
10.
uma das mais úteis invenções moderna
(1)
11.
uma das mais útil
(1)
12.
uma das mais valiosa invenções moderna
(1)
13.
a maior ajuda das invenções m o d e r n a s
(1)
invenções moderna
ELECTRIC
14.
eletricidade de trens
TRAINS
(2)
EVERYDAY
15.
todo dia coisas
(8)
FOOD
16.
MIXERS
comida,. m i s t u r a d o r e s
(2)
VACCUM
17.
THINGS
vácuo
CLEANERS
limpador
(2)
ELECTRIC
18.
RAZORS
eletricidade de barbeadores
STEAM
(2)
ENGINES
19.
os engenhos
de vapor
(1 )
20.
motores a vapor
(1)
21.
máqui nas
(1)
22.
vapores ou fumaça em m á q u i n a s
23.
vapor e máquinas
(de petróleo)
(1)
(2)
PETROL
ENGINES
24.
máquinas a gasolina
(21)
25.
mãqui na a Óleo
(1 )
26.
máquina a petróleo
(1)
27.
petróleo de máquinas
(1)
FEW MOVING
FARTS
28.
movimentos
(1)
29.
mudanças
(4)
30.
movimenta
(poucas)
partes
(1)
31.
movimentando
algumas
partes
32.
(poucas) partes movei
(1)
33.
pouco movimento
(2)
de partes
ELECTRIC MOTOR
34.
(3)
(2nd
a eletricidade do motor
(2)
ELECTRIC SUPPLY
35.
time)
LINE
eletricidade de suprir linha
(2)
E L E C T R I C MOTOR
36.
eletricidade
(3rd
time)
de motor
(2)
MOTOR
CYCLE
37.
m o t o r , ciclo
(1 )
38.
motor de ciclo
(1 )
POWER
39.
POINT
força de ponto
(2)
E L E C T R I C MOTOR
40.
(4th
time)
a eletricidade do motor
(FOR) ALL THESE M A C H I N E S
(2)
(THE ELECTRIC .MOTOR CAN BE USED)
41.
(para) tudo essas m á q u i n a s
(2)
4'¿.
(em) tudo aquelas m a q u i n a s de motor elétrico
(2)
43.
todas essas máqui na s elétricas
(2)
44.
desse modo os motores elétricos
(2)
T2P - Text number
2
-
CORROSION
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THE SLOW, GRADUAL
24
ATTACK
45.
a apresentação
gradual
da junção
46.
vagaroso e gradual, ataca
(1)
47.
lenta e gradual
(1)
48.
v a g a r o s o , ataca .gradual
(3) •
49.
o lento, gradualmente
(3)
50.
o mais lento graduado ataque
(1)
51.
o lento e gradual
(2)
ataque
atacado
atacado
THE BEST KNOWN
52.
(1)
EXAMPLE
o m e l h o r de conhecido exemplo
ORDINARY
53.
,
(1)
IRON
ordinario de ferro
(2)
(THE PROCESS THAT A T T A C K )
EXPOSED
METALS
54.
(de ataques que) explodem metais
(1)
55.
(desta atacada) exposição
(5)
56.
(deste ataque) exposto
57.
(que ataca) expondo
58.
(deste ataque) mostrado
59.
(deste ataque para) expor metais
aos metais
os metais
SULPHUR
60.
de metais
nos metais
61 .
o nobre metai s
62.
a nobreza de metais
(1)
(1)
(1)
COMPOUNDS
enxofre e compostos
THE
(4)
O)
'NOBLE'
METALS
(1 )
O)
T3P - Text number 3 - M A T E R I A L S
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
UNIQUE
24
PROPERTIES
63.
uma propriedade so
(6)
64.
uma so propriedade
(4)
65.
INCOMPLETE
(1)
INCREASING QUANTITIES
*
66.
aumento de quantidade
(2)
67.
quantidades aumentando
(6)
68.
(para) aumentar quantidades
(1)
SPECIFIC
69;
particularidades
70.
particulares de materiais
MATERIALS
de materiais
PARTICULAR
(1)
(7)
GRADES
71.
graus de particularidades
(2)
72.
classificações
(7)
73.
determinado
74.
uma série
particulares
grau
(1)
(destes) particulares
(materiais)
(3)
»
75.
graus particulares
(1)
76.
uma série particular
(2)
77.
(em) grau particular
(2)
78.
particular níveis
(3)
79.
particular
(1)
80.
particularidade dos graus
e graus
SPECIAL
81.
especial
do tipo
(1)
KIND
(1)
RELATIVE
CHEAPNESS
82.
relativa vulgaridade
(1)
83.
relatividade vulgar
(1)
84.
relativa barateamento
(2)
85.
(jornais) baratos
(2)
86.
relatividade do barato
A WIDER RANGE
87.
um largo alcance
88.
um longo alcance
(é) relativo
(2)
(OF NEW AND BETTER
MATERIALS)
(4)
(3)
e
89.
uma classificação
ampla
(2)
90 .
uma cl as si fi cação ampliada
(5)
91.
um aumento
(2)
92.
uma grande área
(2)
93.
a mais larga das áreas
(1)
T4P - Text number 4 - C O N C R E T E
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
STRUCTURAL
STEEL
24
(OR R E I N F O R C E D
CONCRETE)
94.
estrutura de ação
(2)
95.
estrutura de fundição
(2)
96.
armação
(7)
97.
estrutura de aço
(reforçada)
98.
estrutura de aço
(de cimento
9S.
estrutura
de aço
(reforçado)
rígida
(1)
armado)
(1)
(1)
<
"
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
100.
reforçado com concreto
(8)
101.
reforço de concreto
(1)
ROTATING
102.
cilindro
103.
rotação de cilindro
CYLINDER
girando
(3)
(2)
VERY STRONG CONCRETE
(IS NEEDED)
104.
muito
concreto
(1 )
105.
muitos concretos
106.
muito forte e carente o concreto
.
(1 )
, METAL
(10)
BARS
107.
metal
de barras
(2)
108.
metal
e barras
(2)
AIR BUBBLES .
109.
ar das bolhas
110.
ar e bolhas
(6)
•
(THESE) METAL
(1 )
REINFORCEMENTS
111.
metais reforçados
(3)
112.
metais de reforço
(2)
113.
o metal
(1 )
114.
metal
reforçosamente
reforços
(1 )
(MUCH OF C O N C R E T E SIMPLY
IN POSITION) THE STEEL
HOLDS THE STEEL
REINFORCEMENT
REINFORCEMENT
115.
aço reforça
(9)
116.
aço reforçando
(2)
117.
o aço
(em posição de) reforço
118.
o aço e o reforça
(1)
119.
o aço reforçado
(1 )
120.
a rigidez do reforço
(1)
EXTERNAL
(1)
LOAD
121.
carga external
(6)
122.
carga úti 1
(1}
123.
externai
(2)
de carga
(IN) TWO
124.
duas passagens
125.
duas etapas
WAYS
•
(10)
(1 )
STRETCHED
STEEL
WIRES
126.
aço e arame
dilatados
127.
arame esticado
em torno do aço
(1)
128.
arame de metal
estirado
(1)
129.
fios de aço
(1 )
130.
fios de arame esticados
(5)
131.
esticado arame de aço
(1 )
132.
esticado o aço de arames
(2)
STEEL
(7)
WIRES
133.
aço de arame
(1 )
134.
aço e arames
(2)
PRE-FABRICATED
UNITS
135.
(um número) pre-fabricado
de unidades
136.
pré-fabricação
137.
(um número) p r e f a b r i c a d o s de unidades
única
(8)
(1 )
(1 )
138.
(uma quantidade)
139.
pré-fabricados
pre-fabri.cada s
(1)
e unidades
'BUILT IN'
(1)
STRESS
140.
'construido em' pressão
(10)
141.
'construido em' tensão
(1)
142.
construção em pressão
(1)
143.
pressão em construção
(4)
144.
construção
(2)
145.
INCOMPLETE
em stress
'
(3)
T5P - Text number 5 - CAN LIFE EXIST ON THE PLANETS?.
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
ASTRONOMICAL
146.
substancia
147.
grupo
148.
marca de
149.
astronauta do
150.
corpo
151.
(tipo) astronômico
de
152.
(tipo) astronômico
na parte
153.
astronómicamente
154.
astrónomo
155.
astronomia corporal
156.
astronomia
24
BODY
astronômica
astronômico
astronomia
corpo
astrônomo
substancia
principal
o modelo do corpo
corpo
(1 )_
01
REQUISITE
157.
condições dos requisitos
158.
condições dos requisitados
CONDITIONS
01
(jB).
159.
o requisito de condições
(7
160.
os requisitos c o n d i c i o n a d o s
(1
161.
os requisitos e condições
(1
162.
requerida a condição
(1
T63.
requisitam condições
(1
-Q64.
planos de condições
(1
165.
condições
(1
166.
os r e q u i s i t o s , condições
(2
THE AT ONE TIME WIDELY A C C E P T E D
VIEW
167.
(registrar) largamente aquelas
paisagens reconhecidas
-168.
(rejeitar) larga aquelas paisagens
-169.
(requisitar) algum tempo a m p l a m e n t e aceito a
reconhecidas
(2
(1
examinar
(4
170.
(separar) um tempo longamente aprovado uma vista
(1
171.
(rejeitar)
(1
.172.
(por de lado) o modo
173.
(anular) a definição
(1
174.
(rejeitar) a m p l a m e n t e na hora aceita a vista
(1
175.
(discordar) em um tempo a m p l a m e n t e aceitável o visto
(1
176.
(descartar) em comum acordo numa opinião aceita no
uma opinião a m p l a m e n t e
selvagem
e aceitar numa visão
tempo
177.
(1
(livrar) dos problemas em um tempo largo
aceitando
em vista
-178.
(1
(1
(descartar) em um tempo a m p l a m e n t e
concebido
-amostra
uma
(1
179.
(dispor) de um certo tempo a a p r o v a r opiniões
(1
180.
(separar) de vista
(1
181 .
-(rejeitar) em um tempo
ideal
(.1
«
182.
(parar) no tempo aprovado
183.
(discordar)
numa vida
do conceito que era em outro
(1)
tempo
muito visto
184.
(1)
(descartar-se)
visto
de um tempo e x t r e m a m e n t e aceitado ,
(que)
(1)
185.
(discordar) que uma vez aceitada
a vaga visão
186.
(descartar) que num tempo remoto a d m i t i u - s e
pectivas
(1)
pers(1)
THE WHOLE
187.
(que)
UNIVERSE
o universo mais completo
(2)
• 188.
(ate que) um completo
(1)
189.
(até) o todo universo
(3)
190.
o conjunto universo
(2)
(gera) o universo
PLANETARY
SYSTEMS
191.
planetarios sistemático
(3)
192.
os planetas do sistema
(1)
T6P - T e x t number 6 - CAN LIFE EXIST ON THE PLANETS? (II)
NQ of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THE NORMAL
193.
o normal
inanimado
EVENT
eventual
(2)
INANIMATE
194.
24
MATTER
da matéria
(IN) DUE
195.
obrigação
do curso
196.
propria corrente
(2)
COURSE
(1}
(2)
oportunidade da
o curso do
ocasião
dever
PHYSICAL
o fTsico
ambiental
a física
ambiental
ENVIRONMENT
DEFINITE
definição do
KNOWLEDGE
conhecimento
T7P - Text number 7 - THE QUANTUM THEORY
RADIATION
(I)
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
mudanças
movimento
24
NO NOTION (OF NATURAL
(de unidades
(de unidade
deslocamento
natural)
(de unidades
naturais
natural
(movimentos)
(mudança) natural
junção
de
UNITS]
naturais)
naturais)
NATURAL UNITS (OF RADIANT
(movimento)
OF
ENERGY)
uniões
de
unidades
de uniões
natural
(energia
radiante de) uma unidade
(noção) natural
(de energia
natural
radiante)
natureza de uniões
THE VIOLET AND U L T R A - V I O L E T END (OF THE
(energia) violeta e u l t r a - v i o l e t a
(do
SPECTRUM)
espectro)
(na) violeta
e ultra-violeta
final
violetas e ul tra-vi ol etas final (do
a violeta, a ultra-violeta
(do
espectro)
espectro)
e o fim (de aspectos)
a violeta, a u l t r a - v i o l e t a , fim
(de a s p e c t o s )
(no fim do espectro) violeta e u l t r a - v i o l e t a
A LUMINOUS
a luminosidade
a luz do
ATOM
atômica
átomo
ANY M I N U T E
PIECE
pedaço de minuto
minuto
em
pedaço
minuto e pedaço
ELECTRIC
acusação
elétrica
contribuição
elétrica
eletricidade
carregada
THE ONLY OBJECT
o único
alguns
os
CHARGE
objeto
objetos
objetos
o só objeto
INCOMPLETE
(OF SOMETIMES
USING THE NEW TERM)
T8P - Text number 8 - THE QUANTUM THEORY. OF RADIATION (II)
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
24
(THE QUANTUM OF) R A D I A N T
ENERGY
a energia quentica radiante
(4)
a energia quântica de radiação
(2)
o quanta
(2 )
EVERY
DIFFERENT
WAVE-LENGTH
cada onda modular
(2)
d i f e r e n t e de todo c o m p r i m e n t o
de onda
todos os c o m p r i m e n t o s de ondas
(de
(3)
radiação)
diferente
(3)
diferenciar
por qualquer comprimento de onda
(1 )
todas as ondas d i f e r e n t e s de comprimento
(1)
sempre d i f e r e n t e e o s c i l a n t e
(2)
diferente para toda duração
(1)
toda diferente onda de c o m p r i m e n t o
(1 )
toda d i f e r e n t e o n d a - e x t e n s ã o
(1)
cada d i f e r e n t e o n d a - c o m p r i m e n t ó
(1)
EXTREME V I S I B L E RED
RADIATION
extrema v i s i b i l i d a d e para o v e r m e l h o
extrema v i s i b i l i d a d e
visibilidade
de vermelha
radiação
radiação
encarnada e x t r e m a de radiação
extrema radiação vermelha
extrema radiação
visível
de vermelho
(1)
(4)
(.1 )
(1)
visível
(1)
radiação v e r m e l h a , extrema e visível
(1)
radiação
(1)
vermelha e x t r e m a m e n t e
visível
uma radiação Visível
extremamente
radiação
vermelha
radiação
vermelha de extrema
radi ação
verme!ha
vermelha
extrema
visibilidade
o último extremo da radiação
vermelha
extremo vermelho e visível
visível
extremo rubro de
extrema de visível
radiação
vermelha
extrema visível
de v e r m e l h o
extremo visível
vermelha
vermelho
radiação
radiação -
radiação
extremo
(energia quântica) e x t r e m a m e n t e visível
de radi
vermelha
A GIVEN SPECIES
(para) dar uma
concedido
espécies
espécie
(OF R A D I A T I O N
especie
(a radiações)
(de radiação
especiais
encontrada)
(encontradas )
PLANCK'S UNIVERSAL
constantemente
tábua universal
de
Plank
constante
constante
planck's universal
PLANCK'S C O N S T A N T
constante
prancha
CONSTANT
(chamado de) universal
prancha universal
tábua
IS FOUND)
constante
constante
(ENTERS
INTO EVERY
ASPECT)
273.
Planck's
(e a entrada)
274.
Planck's
constante
constante
(D
(5)
(IN THE NATURE OF) PULSATING
PROPERTIES
275.
(de ter d e ) p u l s a r propriedades
(2)
276.
(de) propriedades
(3)
277.
(de) propriedades de pulsar
(2)
278.
a propriedade de pulsação
(natural)
(2)
279.
a propriedade de vibração
(natural)
(5)
280.
oscilação de propriedades
(1 )
281.
(de) pulsar de propriedades
(1)
282.
vibração
(1)
283.
propriedade
284.
(com) propriedades
285.
pulsação
pulsando
propriedade
(1)
pulsátil
(2)
propriedade
(1 )
THE DOUBLE ASPECT
286.
(para)dobrar o aspecto
(4)
287.
(do) dobro
(para cobrir) o a s p e c t o
(2)
288.
(do) dobro
(para cobrir com feltro) u aspecto
(1)
289.
(ele precisa de feltro para a partícula) dobrar o
aspecto
(periódico)
T9P - Text number 9
(1)
-
PARTICLES OR WAVES?
N9 of t r a n s i a t i o n s :
STRAIGHT
290.
a reta de bordas
291.
régua de pedreiro
(I)
24
EDGES
(2)
• (2)
estranha -1 i nha
(1 )
A RAPIDLY MOVING PARTICLE
(OF MATTER)
um rápido m o v i m e n t o de partícula
(3)
uma ligeira mudança de partícula
(13)
uma ligeiramente movei
partícula
partícula
(2)
(de m a t e r i a l )
EARLY
os cientistas
(1)
SCIENTISTS
precavidos
(11)
os cientistas a d i a n t a d o s
(2)
os principais
(1)
cientistas
o cientista prematuro
(1)
antes cientistas
(3)
cedo ci enti stas
(1 )
CONSTANT
uma constante
RATIO
proporcional
(5)
uma constante de rádio
(1)
uma propagação
(7)
constante
T10P - Text number 10 - PARTICLES OR WAVES?
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THIS LATTER
sua parte
esta mais tardia
a l t e r n a t i v a s de
(8)
tarde
(5)
parte
ALTERNATE
períodos
24
PART
superior
esta parte mais
(II)
(D
FITS
(3)
alternando
periodos
THE NEXT
neste
(1)
INSTANT
(THE GATES WERE
SHUT)
instante
(13)
TI IP - Text number 11 - THE THEORY OF CONTINOUS CREATION
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THIS BIG BANG
esta grande
24
IDEA
idea de ruido
esta grande golpeada
(2)
idéia
(1)
esta grande porção de idéias
(1)
esta idéia de grande expansão
(8)
esta grande explosão de idéia
(1)
DETAILED
EXAMINATION
(de ter) detalhado a e x a m i n a ç ã o
(8)
detalhe de examinação
(1)
DIFFUSE BACKGROUND
um material
difuso
MATERIAL
no ultimo plano
(1)
(para fora) a difusão de e x p e r i ê n c i a material
(3)
material
(4)
(fora) e espalhado
no segundo
plano
(para) difundir material
(1)
TI 2P - T e x t number 12 - ATOMIC R A D I A T I O N AND
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
(A NUMBER OF) EXTREMELY
métodos extremos e delicados
24
DELICATE
(um número) e x t r e m a m e n t e d e l i c a d o
LIFE
METHODS
de métodos
(2)
(13)
extremos delicados e métodos
DECAY
resultados
produzidos
decadencia
produtiva
declínio do
produto
declínio da
produção
resultado
PRODUCTS
degenerado
2.1.3. All
types of errors
administered
in nominal
to Nursing
groups
Group
TIN - Text number 1 - THE NERVOUS
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
(A NUMBER OF) SPECIAL
(um grupo) especial
de
de nervos
(um grupo) de especial
nervos
A SHARP PICTURE
as imagens
rápido a imagem
distinta no quadro
afiada no quadro
THE OUTER
dentro do olho
38
NERVES
(OF THE OUTER
clara
fora do olho
SYSTEM
nervos
(um numero) especifico
WORLD
in
WORLD)
10.
do mundo
d
11.
das
(2
células
THE OUTER
EAR
12.
a parte de fora do ouvido
(13
13.
0 exterior do ouvido
14.
0 externo do ouvido
15.
a outra
16.
a orei ha
(1
17.
0 ouvido de fora
(1
.
(5
(1
orelha
' (2
THE THIN, FLEXIBLE
18.
a delgada .flexão do
19.
0 m a g r o , flexível
20.
0 fino
21 .
INCOMPLETE
DRUM
timpano
(6
timpano
(1
flexível
(3
(2
THE INNER
EAR
(15
22.
a parte de dentro do
23.
0 i nteri or do
ouvido
(10
24.
0 interior da orelha
(3
25.
0 anterior do
(1
ouvido
ouvido
A SPIRAL S H E L L - L I K E
26.
a estrutura
27.
uma especial
28.
uma espécie estrutural
29.
um espiral
30.
espiral
especial
STRUCTURE
em forma de
concha
de estrutura em forma de
em forma de
e uma estrutura como
e uma estrutura como
concha
concha
concha
concha
(3
(6
0
(1
(1
THREE TINY D O U G H N U T - S H A P E D .
três.tubos com pequenas
cavidades
três pequenas cavidades de
três pequeninos
HOLLOW
TUBES
agudas e ocas
tubos
tubos de massa
três pequenas cavidades de massa em forma de
três pequenas massas formada de ocos
três pequenas m e m b r a n a s
tres pequenos
tubos
ocas
canais de tubos com aspectos
três pequenos convexos
tubos
finos
tubos
tres pequenas
camadas
três pequenos
sonho*de modelo cóncavo
tubos
i
. T2N - Text number 2 - LATEST
IN HEALTH AND
N9 of t r a n s ! a t i o n s : 38
SOLID
o solido
EVIDENCE
demonstra
AN INFECTIOUS
seres
infecciosos
uma infecção de
virus uma
virus
infecção
A RESULTANT
um resultado
o
VIRUS
em
gotas
resultado
o resultado
pi ngo
uma resultante
um pingo
denúncia
resultante
o resultado da queda
DROP
51.
um resultado, diminuição
(2)
52.
gotas
(1)
(brancas)
WHITE BLOOD
CELLS
53.
com células
(1)
54.
células do sangue
(8)
55.
globos brancos
(9)
56.
globos branco
(1 )
57.
sangue celular branco
(1)
58.
sangue
(5)
59.
células branca
(3)
(gotas) brancas nas células do sangue
(1)
. 60.
VIRAL .AGENT
61.agente
~
62.
o virulento
63.
agente virus
64.
agente visualmente
(1)
i r. terme d i ar i o
(2 )
(1)
(multiplicado...) .
(IN THE BRAINS OF) TEST
(4)
ANIMALS
65.
testes em animais
(4)
66.
experiênciaanimais
(2)
67.
testes no animal
(1)
68.
teste de animais
(1)
69.
teste animais
(2)
VIRUS
INFECTION
70.
infecção de virus
(3)
71.
virus infecção
72.
virus de infecção
(3)
73.
i nfecçãc virus
(1 )
(10)
74.
virus contagio
(2)
CERTAIN
PATTERNS
/
75.
certo o padrão
(10)
76.
o padrão certo
(1 )
77.
certo padrões
(2)
78.
certos exemplos
(4)
79.
o certo padrão
(7)
T3N - Text number 3 - THE LYMPH DRAINAGE
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THE LYMPH D R A I N A G E
38
SYSTEM^
'
>
SYSTEM
80.
a linfa e o sistema de drenagem
81.
a linfa drenagem do sistema
(4)
82.
o sistema circulatorio
(2)
85.
a linfa sistema de drenagem
linfático
(1)
THE LYMPH DRAINAGE SYSTEM
84.
o sistema linfático
.85.
a linfa drena
(29)
(2nd time)
(32)
sistema
(1 )
86.
a linfa drenagem do sistema
(4)
87.
a linfa da drenagem sistemática
(1)
THE RIGHT
COLON
88.
colo reto
(30)
89.
direito do colo
90.
a direita de dois
91.
colo
(2)
92.
certo colo
O )
(1)
pontos
(1)
THE LEFT COLIC
FLEXURE
93.
flexura da cólica esquerda
94.
lado esquerdo da flexura cólica
(1)
95.
flexura do cólico esquerdo
(2)
96.
esquerda cólica flexão
(1)
97.
flexiva da cólica esquerda
(4)
THE MARGINAL
(24)
LYMPH
NODES
98.
a margem da linfa
99.
a margem do linfa nodulos
(2)
100.
o nodulo da linfa marginal
(1)
101 .
o no 1 i nfáti.co
.102.
a marginal
(29)
(1 )
linfa nodulos
THE MARGINAL
(1)
LYMPH NODES
(second
103.
a margem dos nodulos
104.
a margem do nodulo linfático
(2)
105.
a margem da linfa nodulo
(6)
106.
as margens do nodulo da linfa
(4)
107.
o nodulo da linfa marginal
(1)
108.
o no 1 i nfáti co
109.
amarginal
da linfa
time)
(21)
(1 )
linfa nodulos
Th'E LYMPH NODE
(1)
STATIONS
110.
as estações do nodulo linfático
(1)
111.
a transmissão
(1)
112.
os nodulos linfáticos
do nodulo linfático
(4)
\
113.
o modelo da linfa
(3)
114.
o nodulo da linfa posto
(1)
115.
a linfa nodulo transmissor
(1)
/
116.
a posição
117.
INCOMPLETE
linfa
nodulo
(D
(1)
T H E LYMPH NODE STATIONS
118.
os nodulos
da
119.
os nodulos
linfáticos
120 .
as estações do nodulo
121 .
a estação do nodo
122.
a estação do no
123.
o linfa no da
124.
os
(second
linfa
(23)
(10)
linfático
(1)
linfático
(D
linfático
(D
estação
(1)
linfático
d)
THE RIGHT AND T R Ä N S V E R S E
COLON
125.
o colo transverso
126.
o colo transversal
127.
(o hilo linfático) da d i r e i t a e colon
128.
(o hilo linfático) direito e o colo
129.
(o hilo linfático) da direita
130.
colo
131 .
colo certo e transverso
do colo
direito
(2)
artéri a col i ca
133.
arteri a
134.
o meio da arteria
INCOMPLETE
0)
(1)
ARTERY
(27)
cólica
esquerda
1 36 r esquerda da artéria
138.
colo
(4)
(9)
arteria da cólica
o esquerdo
transverso
(3)
(í)
THE LEFT COLIC
137.
transverso
e transversal
transverso
132.
(2)
direito
THE M I D D L E COLIC
135.
time)
cólica
(2)
ARTERIES
(32)
cólica
Cl)
artérias
(1)
(2)
THE LEFT HALF (OF THE COLON)
139.
a metade do colo esquerdo
140.
a metade do colo
(1)
141.
o nieto da esquerda (dos dois pontos)
(1)
142.
o pedaço esquerdo do colo
(1 )
143.
o meio esquerdo do colo
(1)
THE NEXT
(31)
EMPLACEMENTS
144.
o proximo emplacamento
(25)
145.
o próximo colocado
(1 )
146.
localizada próximo
(1 )
T4N - Text number 4 - ACUTE RESPIRATORY
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
ALVEOLAR
FAILURE
38
AIR
147.
os alvéolos
(2)
148.
o ar
149.
alveolar
(1)
150.
semblante alveolar
(1)
(12)
HIGH PARTIAL
151.
pressão parcial
152.
reflexão parcial
153.
depressão alta
154.
alto e parcial
PRESSURE
superior
(3)
alta
(1)
(1 )
respiração
THE PATIENTS'
155.
os pacientes
necessariamente
156.
os pacientes
necessários
157.
o paciente com n e c e s s i d a d e
(1 )
NEEDS
(9)
(10)
(2)
158.
necessidades
(5)
159.
as pacientes necessidades
(11)
ROOM AIR.
160.
sala de ar
(11)
161.
ar poluído
(1 )
162.
(no) aposento
(1)
163.
ar do me i o
(1)
164.
sala ar
(1)
165.
INCOMPLETE
(1)
CHRONIC O B S T R U C T I V E LUNG
DISEASE
166.
obstrução do pulmão enfermo
167.
acrÕnicaobstrutiva
168.
a doença pulmonar obstrução
169.
obstruído de doenças
170.
a crônica o b s t r u t i v a do pulmão doente
(1)
171.
a pulmonar o b s t r u t i v a crônica
(1)
172.
a doença pulmonares
173.
crônica obstruída doença
AN
(16)
crônica
(1)
pulmonares crônicas
obstrutiva
(1)
crônicas
(1)
pulmonar
INTEGRATED F E E D B A C K CONTROL
174.
um sistema
175.
um controle
176.
um auto-regulação
177.
um integrado distema central
178.
um sistema
179.
um sistema de controle
180.
a integração
lação
(2)
(1)
SYSTEM
restaurado
(11)
integrado do sistema de a u t o - r e g u l a ç ã o
do controle do sistema
integrado controlado
(11)
(1)
(2)
pelo feedback
controlada pelo sistema de
(1)
(1)
auto-regu(1)
181.
uma integrado feedback, controle e sistema
UPPER
(1)
AIRWAYS
182.
lobo posterior
(3)
183.
lobo superior
(1)
184.
canal
185.
condutos nasais
superior
(10)
(2)
LOWER A I R W A Y S
(AND
LUNGS)
186.
lobo inferior
(4)
187.
canal
(3)
188.
narinas
(2)
189.
canal
(1 )
190.
INCOMPLETE
inferior
baixo
(1)
C O N G E S T I V E HEART
FAILURE
191.
insuficiência
cardiaca congênita
(1)
192.
congestão deficiente
193.
fracasso congestivo do coração
(2)
194.
congestão da falência cardiaca
(1)
195.
falta de congestão
(1 )
196.
congestão deficiente do coração
(3)
197.
congestão
(1)
198.
congestão cardíaca da deficiência
do coração
(8)
no coração'
insuficiência
cardiaca
(2)
T5N - Text number 5 - C Y S T I T I S
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
PROLONGED
38
IRRITATION
199.
prolongando irritação
(6)
200.
provocado
(1)
por irritação
prolongada
( prostati te). .
(prostatite)
prolongando
irritação
FOREIGN
BODIES
exterior do corpo
corpo
estrangeiro
estranha
(irritação), no
estranhos dos
(irritações)
corpo
corpos
estranhas
nos
corpos
(PREVENTION OF) NORMAL BLADDER
esvaziamento
da bexiga
normal
bexiga normal
cheia
bexiga normal
esgotando
(sobre...)
bexiga normal
esvaziada
(por...)
bexiga normal
despejando
desocupagem
de...
da bexiga
(para...)
normal
bexiga normal
(.por)
bexiga normal
encostando
vacuo
EMPTYING
Csobre)
normal
normalidade
da bexiga
vazia
desocupagem da bexiga
normal
bexiga e s v a z i a m e n t o
ASCENDING
ascendendo
(proximo
INFECTION
infecção
elevado
infecção
refluxo
infectado
infecção
A DISEASED
URETHRA
a)
um doente de uretra
doença
uretra
URETHRAL
canal
uretral
exame
uretral
contração
uretral
estrutura
uretral
observação
uretral
uretral
estrutura
uretral
da estenose
TISSUE
tecido
STRICTURE
RESISTANCE
resistente
tecidos (baixos)
resistentes
FOLLOWING MAJOR SURGICAL
seguindo
gias
os procedimentos
PROCEDURES
postoperatorios
em
grandes
seguindo a maioria" dos casos
seguindo
o principal
procedimento
seguindo maior procedimento
seguindo maior
processo
seguindo a operação
o método
principal
operação
cirúrgico
cirúrgico
seguindo
a cirurgia
cirúrgico
procedimento
principal
procedente cirúrgico
o método
resultante
cirúrgica
principal
seguindo
cirúrgico
cirúrgica
o processo principal
segundo
cirúrgicos
cirúrgico
principal
resultante
resultante
a cirurgia
seguinte maior cirúrgico conduta
PROLONGED
BED
(1)
REST
(partos) prolongados e repouso
na cama
(2)
(parto e) prolongada camada de repouso
(4)
prolonga repouso na cama
(1)
LOWERED
RESISTANCE
diminuiu a resistência
(3)
baixa da resistência
(1)
INCOMPLETE
O)
INADEQUATE BLADDER
EMPTYING
incapacidade da bexiga seca
(3)
inadequade bexiga seca
.
(1 )
a bexiga i n a d e q u a d a m e n t e vazia
(J 1
a bexiga despejando
(mais) inadequada
(4)
a bexiga esvaziando
(mais) insuficiente
C3)
inadequada a desocupagem
a desocupagem
da bexiga
da bexiga e ( m a i s ) inadequada
(mais) inadequada esvaziando a bexiga
(.12).
(1)
(3)
T6N - Text number 6 - TREATMENT OF ACUTE RENAL FAILURE
N9 of translations:
ACUTE RENAL
fracasso
a renal
renal
aguda
FAILURE
CU
agudo
fracassada
o agudo da renal
O )
insuficiência
TISSUE
38
INJURY
C.3)
265.
tecido ofendido
266.
tecido
267.
tecido mal
(3)
prejudicado
(11)
(1)
PRESSOR
AGENTS
268.
agentes presos
(1)
269.
agentes impressores
(3)
270.
agentes precursores
271.
agentes pressor
272.
agentes v a s o c o n s t r i t o r
(3)
273.
pressão agentes
(1)
274.
agentes
-
(1)
(16)
(1)
i
MARKED
OLIGURIA
275.
uma marcada alegoria
(2)
276.
caracterizada alegoria
(1)
211.
oliguria
(1 )
278.
o limite da oliguria
279.
(todavia a restauração
limitada
é) marcada
280.
da i n t e g r i d a d e
circulatoria
(e p e r s i s t e n t e )
(20)
alegoria
(1 )
(a integridade
281.
(2)
respiratória)
limita
a ol iguri a
(persistindo)
(1 )
PRONOUNCED
RENAL
DAMAGE
282.
um enunciado
de dano renal
(2)
283.
doença renal
citada
(7)
284.
locutor renal
285.
estrago renal determinado
(1)
286.
perda articulada
(3)
danificado
renal
(1 )
287.
determinado
estrago
(1)
288.
pronunciado
renal
(1)
dano
MISMATCHED
289.
transfusão malfeita
290.
a d m i n i s t r a r transfusão
291.
transfusão
292.
administração
TRANSFUSION
(7)
(18)
(de s e v e r i d a d e )
,293.
transfusão
"294.
transformação
-295.
transfusão
296.
transfusão
(1)
de transfusão
(2)
de ma gestão
(1)
inadequada
(1^
'mismatched'
(3)
*
(4][
S U B S E Q U E N T ACUTE TUBULAR
intensidade
NECROSIS
297.
subsequente
tubular aguda
(7)
298.
gravidade da necrose tubular aguda
(.1 )
299.
subsequente desgaste
(.1 )
.300.
subsequente tubular aguda
301.
subsequente aguda tubular necrose
(1l
302.
necrose tubular
(li
303.
grave subsequente
tubular aguda
(12)
tubular agudo
(I )
T7N - Text number 7 - LIVER AND BILIARY
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THE LARGEST SECRETING
TRACT
38
ORGAN
304.
órgão de grande secreção
(2)L
305.
o maior Órgão secretando
(3)
306.
o mais largo e secreto órgão
(3)_
307.
o mai s longo e secreto Órgão
(J ).
308.
(o fígado e) secretado
O).
por um Órgão
309.
o maior órgão de sensação
(1)
310.
o maior órgão m i s t e r i o s o
(1)
A MAJOR DEGREE (OF R E S E R V E FUNCTIONAL
CAPACITY)
i
311.
a principal
função
(8)
312.
a maior condição
(3)
313.
uma posição principal
(1)
314.
o principal
(1)
315.
uma area m a i o r
(1)
316.
o maior volume
(1)
317.
um grande degrau
(1)
decreto
RESERVE*FUNCTIONAL
.318.
reserva de capacidade
CAPACITY
funcional
(2)
319.
capacidade funcional
reserVatÕria
320.
reserva funcional
321.
reserva funcional
(5)
322.
capacidade
(3)
323.
reserva capacitaria
capacidade
(3)
de reserva
EXTRAORDINARY
(1)
(.1)
POWERS
(OF
324.
energia e x t r a o r d i n a r i a
325.
extraordinariamente
poderes
326.
extraordinariamente
de pouca
ACCURATE
REGENERATION).
(13)
(1)
(regeneração)
(1)
INFORMATION
327.
função exata
(.1 )
328.
precisa informações
(6)
(CORDS O F ) LIVER
329.
células b i l i a r e s
CELLS
U ).
células da medula
INCOMPLETE
THE OTHER
o outro
termina
o fim dos
a outra
ENP-
outros
conclue
outras extremidades
(.esta fechada)
T8N - Text number 8 - B R O N C H I X T I S
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n :
38
A GENERAL ACUTE UPPER RESPIRATORY
infecção respiratória
infecção aguda geral
INFECTION
superior em,geral
do aparelho
aguda
respiratório
su-
perior
infecção aguda da via r e s p i r a t ó r i a s u p e r i o r
infecção
respiratória aguda
(é parte) geral
geral
superior
da infecção aguda r e s p i r a t ó r i a
su
perior
(é parte)
comum aguda s u p e r i o r da infecção
ratória
comum aguda
infecção
respiratória
(a parte) superior da infecção
geral
aguda superior
do comum
infecção
COLD
frio
A PYOGENIC OR VIRUS
piogênica
respiratória
respiratória
THE COMMON
superior
infecção
do virus
INFECTION
respi-
piogenica ou virus
virus
infeccioso
infeccioso
piogênicb ou infecção
a pyogenic ou virus
piogenica ou
virótica
infeccioso
infecção
i
(de uma) pyogenic de virus
infeccioso
TRACHEOBRONCHIAL
arvore genealógica
TREE
traqueobronquite
traqueotomia
P R E D I S P O S I N G OR CONTRIBUTORY
os fatores predispostos
ou contribui ti vos
predispõem e contribuem com
predispondo
ou as causas
fatores
contribuindo
predispondo ou contributivos
predispondo ou os elementos
predispondo ou fatores
predispondo
fatores
colaboradores
contributarios
predisposta ou responsável
fatores que predispõe
fatores
e contribuí
ou c o n t r i b u t a r i o
CHRONIC PULMONARY
(estão...)
OR C A R D I A C
doença pulmonar cardíaca e crônica
crônica pulmonar ou cardíaca
doença
pulmonar crônica ou doença
cardíaca
crônico pulmonar do doente
cardíaco
doença
cardíaca
RECURRING
ocorrendo
ataques
FACTORS
ATTACKS
DISEASE
recorrendo
voltando
ataques
ataques
ataques
recorrente
ACUTE BRONCHIAL
bronquial
aguda causa
bronquial
aguda
irrita
bronquial
aguda
irritações
bronquial
aguda
irritação
IRRITATION
irritação
T9N - Text number 9 - HABITUAL
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
A MORE
a evolução mais
compreensiva
a mais c o m p r e e n s i v a
avaliação
avaliação
uma maior compreensão
uma maior avaliação
avaliativa
compreensiva
compreensivo
S Y S T E M I C , ENDOCRINE
OR CYTOGENETIC FACTORS
(para e x c l u i r ) s i s t e m a t i c a m e n t e
e
38
COMPREHENSIVE.EVALUATION
a mais compreensível
um estudo mais
ABORTION
fatores
endocrinos
citogeneticos
(controle)
(o dominio)
sistemático
sistemático
(exterior)
endöcrino
(para e x c l u i r ) s i s t e m a t i c a m e n t e , e n d o c r i n a e geneticamente
(ausente regra)
sistemática
(saída do) s is tema endocrino
ou
citogenetico
389 .
(dois) sistemas
(de
390.
(lei
391 .
sistema
392.
sistêmico, endocrino ou c i t o g e n é t i c o
regulamentar)
rejeição)
(1 )
sistemático
(1)
endocrino
(2)
LUTEAL
fatores
(1)
PHASE
393.
fase
luteal
(8)
39 4.
fase
letal
Cl)
395.
1utea1 , fase de
C2)
396.
fase de luta
C2)
397.
INCOMPLETE
Cl)
•
S E P T A T E OR B I C O R N U A T E U N I C O L L I S
UTERI
398.
bicórneos fora do colo
399 .
bicarbonato e x i s t e n t e
400.
útero do colo
Ci)
401 .
único colo
Cl)
402.
INCOMPLETE
uterino
CD
no utero
(i)
bicorne
(21)
THE DOUBLE OR D I D E L P H I C
UTERUS
403.
a duplicidade
404.
a duplicidade ou outras
405.
a duplicidade
406.
o dobro do útero
C8)
40 7.
a duplicidade
C5)
408.
o dobro ou didelfico
409.
o duplo öu úteros
ou útero
didelfico
deficiências
ou úteros
um determinado
úteros
resto de placenta
Cl)
en
do útero
A FIXED R E T R O D I S P L A C E D
410.
(7)
C3)
en
UTERUS
uterina
C2)
411 .
a fixação
retrodes1ocada
412.
um a g e n t e
predisposto
413.
um útero
414. . a firme
útero
fixado
retrocolocado
g r a v i d e z no
do
no
(5)
útero
fixamente
(1)
Cl)
útero
Cl)
415.
uma fixa r e t r o d i s p l a c e n t a
do
útero
416 .
um fixo no
417.
um fixado
418.
fixa no útero
CD
419.
fixo
CD
Cl)
útero
no
CD
útero
CD
no útero
AN OLD H E A L E D
processo
INFLAMMATORY.PROCESS
420.
um antigo
421 .
o processo
inflamatorio
422.
o processo
velho de i n f l a m a t o r i o
423.
um velho
curado
de cura
inflamatoria
(.16)
C9)
de i n f l a m a t o r i o
SUBMUCOUS
cicatrizante
processo
CD
(2)
FIBROIDS
424.
o submuco
425.
submucos
fibrosas
(-2)
426.
submucos
fibrados
(-2)
427.
submuco
428.
submucos
429.
fibroso
430.
fi bras dé
431 .
o fibrosamento
432.
submucosa
fibroso
CD
fibroide
CD
fibroides
de
Cl 3)
submucos
CD
submucos
da
C3)
submucosa
C5)
fibroides
(3)
A S I L E N T OR S Y M P T O M A T I C
433.
um s i l ê n c i o
causa
434.
uma calma ou s i n t o m a
CAUSE
C3)
de
causa
CD
uma causa
lenta
T10N - T e x t n u m b e r
10 -
PLACENTA
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
THE T H I R D
um terço do
terceiro
TRIMESTER
trimestre
mês
EARLY
próxima
PREGNANCY
gravidez
gravidez
prematura
gravidez
precoce
gravidez
cedo
EARLY
proximo
ABORTION
aborto
aborto
prematuro
aborto
precoce
aborto
cedo
THE L O W E R U T E R I N E
embaixo
abaixo
38
de s e g m e n t o
do s e g m e n t o
cavidade
uterina
segmento
uterino
THE
a interna
uterino
uterino
INTERNAL
cervical
os c e r v i c a i s
o cervical
os cervical
internos
interna
interna
SEGMENT
CERVICAL
OS
454.
a interna cervical
455.
INCOMPLETE
a abertura
0)
(.2)
ADVANCING MATERNAL
AGE
456.
o progresso maternal
de idade
(.2)
457 .
o maternal
do século
(.1).
458.
o avanço maternal
459.
avanço maternal
(.2)
460.
as ações maternais
(1)
461.
período maternal
(2)
462.
avançando a era maternal
463.
adiantando
464.
o avançamento maternal
progresso
age
(4)
O
as ações m a t e r n a i s
)
(2)
da idade
INCREASING
2
O)
PARITY
465.
crescimento
da igualdade
(.2}
466.
crescente semelhança
(3)
467.
aumento de paridade
(2)
468'.
aumento
(.2)
469.
aumenta a paridade
470.
aumentando a paridade
(.5)
471.
aumentando
(J )
472.
igualmente
473.
aumentando.
(14)
474.
INCOMPLETE
(4)
(da predisposição}
'
ambos
-
UNFAVORABLE U T E R I N E
(1 )
(Z\
ENVIRONMENT
475.
desfavorável
(a concepção)
(1)
476.
desfavorável
(concepção)
(1)
477.
uterina desfavorável
(9)
CO
•=1-
desfavorável
479.
ambiente uterino
480 .
uterina desfavorável
TUN
uterino
infavorãvel
condição
DISEASED
área sadia
482.
áreas
orgânica
(ou
(1)
PYELONEPHRITIS
t r a n s l a t i o n s : 38
DISEASED AREAS (ALTERNATING
481 .
(2)
- Text number 11 N9 of
•
C)
K I T H HEALTHY
OR MUCH
LESS
AREAS)
doente)
(12)
(alternativas)
Ci)
•
HEALTHY
OR MUCH LESS DISEASED
483.
area muito
484.
muito
485.
muito menos áreas
inferior
poucas áreas
(12)
doentes
C7)
doentias
Cio)
RENAL
486 .
AREAS
BIOPSY
biofísica
(4)
T12N - Text number 12 - ACUTE RENAL
N9 of
FAILURE
t r a n s l a t i o n s : 38
(EVIDENCE OF) GROSS
487.
grosseira desordem
488.
transtorno
489.
volumoso desarranjo
490.
grosso desarranjo
491 .
grande transformação
49 2.
rude
493.
rude química de
C H E M I C A L DERANGEMENT
química
de grandes
(2)
produtos
químico
Cio)
químico
C3)
química
(evidência) d e s o r d e n a d a
desarranjo
(11 )
d )
de produtos q u í m i c o s
(4)
(2)
494.
(demonstração)
495.
(prova)
de produtos q u í m i c o s
(2)
rude de substância química d e s a r r a n j a d a
THE BEST
(1)
ATTEMPTS
495.
Ótima tentativa
(11)
497.
a tentativa boa
(1)
498.
a melhor das tentativas
(1)
499.
tentativa
(2)
500.
uma m e l h o r tentativa
(3)
THE RELATIVELY
SUDDEN
INABILITY
(OF THE
KIDNEYS)
501.
a relatividade súbita da inabilidade
(2)
502.
a relativa ianbi1 idade
(1)
503.
a relativa
(2)
504.
relatividade súbita i n c a p a c i t a d a
(4)
505.
relatividade
(7)
506.
o relativo súbito de inabilidade
507.
relativamente
(por) uma brusca i n c a p a c i d a d e
(4)
508.
relativamente
súbito a i n a b i l i d a d e
(1)
509.
relatividade brusca
incapacidade
repentina
inabilitada
(11)
inabilidavel
(1 )
T13N - Text number 13 - DYSPEPSIA
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s :
EXCESSIVE
38
SMOKING
510.
fumando e x c e s s i v a m e n t e
(2)
511.
exclusivamente
(5)
512.
fumagantes
fumando
excessivos
GAS-FORMI.NG
513.
vegetais em estado
ges os o
(1)
VEGETABLES
*
(8)
514.
vegetais
em forma de gases
(.2)
515.
vegetais
cozidos a gas
(3)
516.
forma de (
517.
que fermentam
518.
(com)
) vegetal
Cl)
gases
(2)
(16)
vegetais
(PROLONG)
GASTRIC EMPTYING
519.
um (prolongado)
520 .
esvaziamento
(prolongado).
521 .
esvaziamento
gástrico
522.
(prolongamento)
523.
o tempo vazio
TIME
periodo de e s v a z i a m e n t o
gástrico
(11 )
(prolongado)
gástrico
9
gástrico
(6)
despejando
(3)
ü)
(1)
T14N - Text number 14 - CALCULI
N9 of t r a n s l a t i o n s : 38
RENAL
524.
glándulas
525.
papilos
PAPILLAE
(16)
renais
renais
12)
A WAXY, ALMOST T R A N S P A R E N T
526 .
aparência
527 .
uma cera de aparência quase
528.
uma cera e aparência mais
529 .
cera com aspecto
530 .
uma aparência
531 .
uma cor pálida, a p a r e n t e m e n t e
APPEARANCE
transparente
(3)
transparente
transparente
transparente
pegajosa e que
grande
533.
grande chifre de veado
pedra
en
0 )
transparece
transparente
A LARGE S T A G - H O R N
532 .
(.12)
0)
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STONE
17)
CU
534.
grande pedra chifre de veado
535.
pedra em chifre de veado
(5)
536.
um largo veado de chifre de pedra
(1)
2.2.
Wbt/i rg
(13)
errors
2.2.1. Wbt and irg errors in n o n - s p e c i f i c
texts.
f
2.2.1.1.
Wbt and irg errors in
texts, by Physics
2.2.1.2.
Wbt and i rg errors
texts, by Nursing
TIC - N o n - s p e c i f i c
2.2.1.
in
non-specific
students.
Wbt and i rg errors made by the Physics
TIC - Text EDUCATION
IN
THE PUBLIC A U T H O R I T Y ' S
autoridades
as públicas
2.
a pública a u t o r i d a d e responsável
ERRORS
responsáveis
e particular
EDUCATIONAL
Group
RESPONSIBILITIES
1.
BOTH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
Group
BRAZIL
WORD-BOUND TRANSLATION
ambos público
students.
text
and by the Nursing
3.
non-specific
(6)
Ol
INSTITUTIONS
instituições
01
POLICY
4.
educação
policial
5.
educacional
6.
educação política
7.
educação e política
política
01
(.6).
01
(.2)
THE C H A N G I N G
8.
as m u d a n ç a s
9.
mudanças
necessárias
(2)
o federal
SCHOOL
o nacional
e educacional
uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e
administração
SYSTEM
sistema
(4)
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ensinando
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13.
(1)
EDUCATIONAL
A NEW U N I V E R S I T Y
12.
SYSTEM
e escolar sistema
THE NATIONAL
11.
(15)
precisas
THE F E D E R A L
10.
NEEDS
LAW
lei
ACTIVITIES
e atividades
THE C O U N T R Y ' S
(1)
UNIVERSITIES
14.
os paTses
universitários
15.
cidades universitárias
EXTENSION
(1 )
O)
(3)
OBJECTIVES
16.
extensão
e objetivos
(1)
17.
extensão
objetiva
Ç6).
18.
extensão
objetivos
C8)
DEPARTMENT
19.
departamento
e
SYSTEM
sistema
UNIVERSITY
TEACHING
METHODS
20.
universidade
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(.3)
21.
universidade, ensino e métodos
(2)
INADEQUATE
TEACHING
INSERTION OF A RANKSHIFTED
GROUP
LAW
22.
o ensino de leis
(4)
23.
o ensinamento
(.2)
de lei
THE COUNTRY'S
24.
o pais do d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o
THE CHANGING
25.
mudanças
preciso
SCHOOL
(J)
SYSTEM
a nacional
TEACHING
(4)
LAW
(2)
UNIVERSITIES
C21
os países dos u n i v e r s i t a r i o s
A HIGH-SCHOOL. LEVEL
alta escola de nível
EXTENSION
31.
'
uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e de e n s i n a m e n t o de lei
'
30.
SYSTEM
educação do sistema
THE COUNTRY'S
29.
{2)
as federais escolas do sistema
A NEW UNIVERSITY
28.
(3)
NEEDS
THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL
27.
NEEDS
nas necessidades
THE FEDERAL
26.
DEVELOPMENTAL
extensão de
(_4).
OBJECTIVES
objetivos
32.
extensão
33.
dos objetivados
UNI VERSITY ACADEMIC A C T I V I T I E S
universidade de a c a d ê m i c a a t i v i d a d e
01
*
(2)-
ADMINISTRATIVE
34.
administração
das a t i v i d a d e s
DEPARTMENT
35.
departamento
ACTIVITIES
.
SYSTEM
de sistema
T2C - T é x t RACE
(.1 )
HEREDITY
WORD-BOUND TRANSLATION
SKIN
(.2)
ERRORS
COLOUR
36.
pele e cor
(.2)
37 .
pel e col ori da
(.3)
38.
epiderme
(2)
colorida
' NEGROID
RACES
39.
negros e raças
C2)
40.
negroide
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raças
HAIR T Y P E
41.
,
c a b e l o , tipo
HEAD
(.2).
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42.
cabeça m o l d a d a
(2\
43.
c a b e ç a e forma
(.21
SICKLE-CELL
ANEMIA
44.
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anemia
{2\
45.
sickle-celula
anêmica
(2)
46.
"sickle-cell"
anemia
(2l
RH-NEGATIVE
47.
Rh-negativo,
FACTORS
fatores
'
(2]_
48.
Rh-negativo e fatores
,
THE TALL, THIN SHAPE
(OF SOME
(1)
TRIBES)
49.
o alto, delgada forma
(3)
50.
o alto, os magros e forma
(2)
51.
o alto, magra forma
(3)
EFFICIENT
52.
HEAT LOSS
eficiente calor e perda
ENVIRONMENTAL
53.
ambiental
-
INADEQUATE
54.
FORCES
forças
SKIN
(1)
INSERTION OF A RANKSHIFTED
(1)
GROUP
COLOUR
pele de cor
(3)
»
HAIR TYPE
55.
cabelo do tipo
NEGROID
56.
RACES
negros de raças
HUMAN
57.
(3)
(_2)
SPECIES
humana em especies
SICKLE-CELL
58.
foice-cëlula
ANEMIA
de anemia
HEREDITY
59.
(_1 )..
O l
FORM
hereditario em forma
THE INTERVENING SEMITIC
(.21
PEOPLES
60.
intervenção
semítica de povos
LARGER BODY
(4)
SURFACES
61.
maior corpo da superficie
(5)
62.
o mais
(2)
largo corpo de s u p e r f i c i e
EFFICIENT HEAT
63; eficiência
LOSS
do calor perdido
(1)
2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . wbt and i rg errors» by the
Physics
students.
TTC - Text EDUCATION
IN BRAZIL
WBT ERRORS - Physics
THE PUBLIC A U T H O R I T Y ' S
1.
as públicas a u t o r i d a d e s
RESPONSIBILITIES
responsáveis
BOTH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
2.
3.
educacional
4.
educação e política
as mudanças
C6)
(2)
NEEDS
necessárias
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THE FEDERAL SCHOOL
6.
o federal
SYSTEM
e e s c o l a r sistema
THE NATIONAL E D U C A C I O N A L
7.
o nacional
(1)
POLICY
política
THE CHANGING
(6)
INSTITUTIONS
ambos público e p a r t i c u l a r instituições
EDUCATIONAL
5.
Group
e educacional
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(_1 )
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sistema
TEACHING
(.4)
LAW
8.
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9,
10.
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(1)
cidades u n i v e r s i t a r i a s
(.3)
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extensão objetivos
UNIVERSITY
12.
(8)
TEACHING
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u n i v e r s i d a d e , ensino e m é t o d o s
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(_2)
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1.
(1)
os países u n i v e r s i t a r i o s
EXTENSION
11.
lei
o país do d e s e n v o l v i m e n t o
GROUP
NEEDS
preciso
(_3)
THE CHANGING .NEEDS
2.
mudanças
nas necessidades
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3.
SCHOOL
SYSTEM
as federais escolas do sistema
A HIGH-SCHOOL
4.
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{2\
LEVEL
alta escola de nível
T2C - Text RACE AND
(41
HEREDITY
WBT ERRORS - Physics
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Group
COLOUR
1.
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(21
2.
pele colorida
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NEGROID
3.
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4.
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5.
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7.
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8.
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9.
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fatores
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10.
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.
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pele de cor
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2.
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3.
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4.
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de anemia
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5.
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forças
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1.
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forma
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6.
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maior corpo da superficie
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Nursing
students.
TIC - Text E D U C A T I O N
IN BRAZIL
WBT ERRORS - Nursing
THE PUBLIC A U T H O R I T Y ' S
1. a pública a u t o r i d a d e
EDUCATIONAL
Group
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responsável
(1)
POLICY
2.
educação policial
(J 1
3.
educação
(.1)
política
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4.
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precisas
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5.
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a d m i n i s t r a ç ã o e atividades
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(.1 ).
OBJECTIVES
6.
extensão e objetivos
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7.
extensão objetiva
(6)
/
DEPARTMENT
8.
departamento
SYSTEM
e sistema
UNIVERSITY T E A C H I N G
9.
universidade
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(3)
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LAW
1.
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2.
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4.
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(1)
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u n i v e r s i d a d e de a c a d ê m i c a a t i v i d a d e
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administração
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departamento de sistema
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0 1
HEREDITY
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SKIN
(2)
ACTIVITIES
das a t i v i d a d e s
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10.
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6.
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os países dos u n i v e r s i t a r i o s
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2.
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cabelo, tipo
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3.
cabeça moldada
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4.
cabeça e forma
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SHAPE
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6.
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1.
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TRANSLATION
THE MOST HELPFUL MODERN
INVENTIONS
translated
1.
as mais útil
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EVERYDAY
2.
vacuo
CLEANERS
(2)
ENGINES
(2)
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m o t o r ciclo
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10.
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MOTOR
(21
TRAINS
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8.
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c o m i d a , mis turado res
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(1)
todo dia c o i s a s
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12.
pouco movimento
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13.
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14.
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16.
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22.
METALS
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21.
TRANSLATION
o nobre metais
SULPHUR
20.
(2)
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18.
LINE
motor de ciclo
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17.
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15.
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24.
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25.
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26.
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27.
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29.
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0 1
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O l
CHEAPNESS
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33.
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32.
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31.
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MATERIALS
28.
30.
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35.
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36.arebolhas
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37.
metais
38.
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reforçados
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41.
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40.
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39.
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STRESS
42.
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43.
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44.
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45.
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46.
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47.
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estrutura
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(.2)
49.
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de f u n d i ç ã o
(2)
50.
armação
51.
estrutura
de aço
(.7)
de aço
. (1)
REINFORCED
52.
reforçado
53.
reforço
com c o n c r e t o
(8)
de c o n c r e t o
ROTATING
54.
CONCRETE
(_1 )
CYLINDER
rotação de c i l i n d r o
(2)
M E T A L BARS
55.
metal
de barras
AIR
56.
ar de bolhas
metais
iß)
REINFORCEMENTS
de reforço
STEEL
58.
a r i g i d e z do r e f o r ç o
external
(J l
LOAD
de c a r g a
STRETCHED
60.
C?)_
REINFORCEMENT
EXTERNAL
59.
(2)
BUBBLES
METAL
57.
-
C^î
STEEL
e s t i c a d o aço de a r a m e s
STEEL
WIRES
WIRES
(2)
aço de arame
T5P - W O R D - B O U N D
ASTRONOMICAL
62.
astrônomo
63.
astronomia
TRANSLATION
BODY
corpo
corporal
REQUISITE
CONDITIONS
64.
os requisitos
condicionados
65.
os requisitos e condições
66.
os r e q u i s i t o s ,
condições
THE WHOLE
67.
0 todo uni verso
68.
o conjunto
universo
PLANETARY
69.
UNIVERSE
planetarios
SYSTEMS
sistemático
INADEQUATE
INSERTION OF RANKSHIFTED
ASTRONOMICAL
70.
astronauta do corpo
REQUISITE
71.
o requisito
72.
planos de
de
CONDITIONS
condições
condições
PLANETARY
73.
BODY
planetas do
SYSTEMS
sistema
T6P - W O R D - B O U N D
TRANSLATION
GROUPS
THE NORMAL
74.
o normal
EVENT
eventual,
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
75.
o físico
ambiental
76.
a física
ambiental
INADEQUATE
INANIMATE
77.
inanimado
DUE
INSERTION OF RANKSHIFTED
MATTER
da materia
COURSE
e
78.
obrigação do
curso
. DEFINITE
79.
definição do
KNOWLEDGE
conhecimento
T7P - WORD-BOUND
TRANSLATION
THE VIOLET AND U L T R A - V I O L E T
80.
violeta e u l t r a - v i o l e t a
81.
violetas e u 1 t r a - v i o l e t a s
82.
a violeta, a ultra-vi oleta e o fim
83.
a violeta, a ultra-violeta,
A LUMINOUS
84.
a luminosidade
ATOM
atômica
ANY M I N U T E
PIECE
85. _ algum minuto e pedaço
ELECTRIC
86.
eletricidade
CHARGE
carregada
final
final
fim
END
GROUPS
THE ONLY
87.
OBJECT
o so objeto
(4)
INADEQUATE
NATURAL
88.
INSERTION OF RANKSHIFTED
UNITS
natureza de uniões
A LUMINOUS
89.
(1)
ATOM
a luz do átomo
(1)
ANY M I N U T E
90.
GROUPS
PIECE
algum minuto em pedaço
(2)
e
T8P - W O R D - B O U N D
EVERY
DIFFERENT
TRANSLATION
WAVE-LENGTH
91.
toda diferente o n d a - e x t e n s ã o
(1)
92.
cada diferente onda-compriment.o
(11
EXTREME VISIBLE
93.
extremo visível
RED
vermelha
PLANCK'S U N I V E R S A L
RADIATION
radiação
CONSTANT
94.
95.
planck's universal c o n s t a n t e
tábua universal c o n s t a n t e '
96.
prancha universal
PLANCK'S
(J ).
constante
(61
01
_
(3}
CONSTANT
97.
98.
Planck's constante
tábua constante
Q>1
(_1}
99.
prancha constante
(3)
PULSATING
PROPERTIES
100.
vi b ra ção propri edade
(1)
101 .
pulsação
(1)
propri e d a d e
INADEQUATE
EVERY
102.
INSERTION
DIFFERENT
toda d i f e r e n t e
OF R A N K S H I F T E D
WAVE-LENGTH
onda de c o m p r i m e n t o
EXTREME VISIBLE
RED
extrema
visibilidade
para o v e r m e l h o
104.
extrema
visibilidade
de v e r m e l h a
105.
extrema
de visível
106.
extrema
visTvel
PULSATING
108.
oscilação
radiação
radiação
(1)
(4)
vermelha
radiação
(2)
de°vermelho
radiação
(1 )
PROPERTIES
de p r o p r i e d a d e s
(1 )„
T9P - W O R D - B O U N D
TRANSLATION
A RAPIDLY-MOVING
PARTICLE
uma l i g e i r a m e n t e movei
EARLY
partícula
(J3)
SCIENTISTS
109.
antes
110.
codo c i e n t i s t a s
(_3\
cientistas
CONSTANT
111.
(1)
RADIATION
103.
107.
GROUPS
uma c o n s t a n t e
(J ).
RATIO
proporcional
INADEQUATE
INSERTION
A RAPIDLY-MOVING
(5)_
OF R A N K S H I F T E D
GROUPS
PARTICLE
112.
um rápido m o v i m e n t o
de p a r t í c u l a
(j3)..
113.
uma l i g e i r a m u d a n ç a
de p a r t í c u l a
(_13)
CONSTANT
114.
uma c o n s t a n t e
RATIO
de
rádio
TI OP - W O R D - B O U N D
. THIS LATTER
115.
esta mais
tardia
THE NEXT
116.
neste
PART
parte
(.13)
alternativas
INSERTION
THIS
TRANSLATION
idéia
INSERTION
T H I S BIG BANG
119.
esta
120.
esta grande e x p l o s ã o
01
OF A R A N K S H I F T E D
de idéia
O).
(1 )_
EXAMINATION
de exami nação
DIFFUSE BACKGROUND
a difusão
GROUP
IDEA
g r a n d e p o r ç ã o de i d é i a s .
DETAILED
122.
(.3)
IDEA
golpeada
INADEQUATE
detalhe
GROUP
de p e r i o d o s
BIG B A N G
esta grande
OF A R A N K S H I F T E D
FITS
TllP - W O R D - B O U N D
121.
(1)
instante
ALTERNATE
118.
TRANSLATION
INSTANT
INADEQUATE
117.
(1)
O l
MATERIAL
da e x p e r i ê n c i a m a t e r i a l
T12 P - W O R D - B O U N D
TRANSLATION
(3)
EXTREMELY
123.
METHODS
extremos delicados e métodos
DECAY
124.
DELICATE
decadencia
PRODUCTS
produtiva
INADEQUATE
DECAY
INSERTION OF
declínio de produtos
126.
declínio da produção
2.2.3.
,
wbt and i rg errors
TIN - W O R D - B O U N D
SPECIAL
translated
Group
nervos
o m a g r o , flexível
THE OUTER
(2)
DRUM
tímpano
Ol
INSERTION OF
o exterior do ouvido
4.
o externo do ouvido
THE T H I N , FLEXIBLE
GROUPS
(_5)
Ol
DRUM
adelgadaflexãodotímpano
THE INNER
RANKS'.iIFTED
EAR
3.
6.
in the specific
NERVES
INADEQUATE
5.
(2)
TRANSLATION
THE THIN, FLEXIBLE
2.
GROUPS
(.1)
by the Nursing
especial
RANKSHIFTED
PRODUCTS
125.
1.
(1)
(ß)
EAR
o interior do ouvido
O0-1
7.
o interior da orelha
(3)
8.
o anterior do ouvido
(1)
A SPIRAL SHELL-LIKE
9.
espiral
STRUCTURE
em concha como estrutura
THREE
TINY D O U G H N U T - S H A P E D
10.
três pequenas massas
11.
três pequenos
formadas
HOLLOW
A RESULTANT
TUBES
de ocos tubos
sonhos de m o d e l o cóncavo
T2N - WORD-BOUND
(.9)
tubos
(.1).
TRANSLATION
DROP
12.
o resultado
13.
uma resultante
14.
um resultado, diminuição
TEST
CD
pingo
(.3)
denuncia
(2)
(2)
ANIMALS
15.
experiência animais
(2)
16.
teste animais
(2)
VIRUS
INFECTION
17.
virus
infecção
(10)
18.
virus contágio
(2)
CERTAIN
19.
PATTERNS
o certo padrão
INADEQUATE
(7)
INSERTION
AN INFECTIOUS
20.
GROUPS
VIRUS
uma infecção de virus
A RESULTANT
OF R A N K S H I F T E D
DROP
„--
(3)
21.
um resultado
22.
o resultado
em gotas
(10)
da queda
TEST
(1)
ANIMALS
23.
testes em animais
(4)
24.
testes no animal
(1)
25.
teste de animais
(1)
VIRUS
26.
INFECTION
virus de infecção
(3)
T3N - W O R D - B O U N D
THE RIGHT
27.
COLON
o certo colo
(1)
. THE LEFT COLIC
28..
a marginal
a marginal
LYMPH NODES
(2nd Time)
linfa nodulos
a linfa nodulo
(1)
STATIONS
transmissor
THE L'EFT COLIC
32.
(1st Time)
(1 )„
LYMPH NODES
THE LYMPH NODE
31.
(1)
linfa nodulos
THE MARGINAL
30.
FLEXURE
esquerda cólica flexão
THE MARGINAL
29.
TRANSLATION
(1 ).
ARTERIES
o esquerdo cólica arterias
INADEQUATE
INSERTION
(.1 )_
OF RANKSHIFTED
THE LYMPH DRAINAGE SYSTEM
.
GROUPS
33.
a linfa drenagem do sistema
THE LYMPH DRAINAGE
(.4)
SYSTEM
34.
a linfa drenagem do sistema
(.4)
35.
a linfa da drenagem sistemática
(1)
THE RIGHT
COLON
36.
direito do colo
(J )
37.
a direita de dois pontos
THE MARGINAL
38.
LYMPH
LYMPH
(_2)
NODES
a margem da linfa nodulo
THE LYMPH NODE
40.
NODES
a margem do linfa nodulos
THE M A R G I N A L
-39.
CU
(_6)
STATIONS
o" linfa no da estação
(J)
T4N - W O R D - B O U N D
THE PATIENTS'
TRANSLATION
NEEDS
41.
os pacientes
necessários
(JO)
42.
as pacientes
necessidades
(11)
ROOM AIR
43.
sala ar
O)
AN INTEGRATED FEEDBACK CONTROL
44.
SYSTEM
um integrado feedback, controle e sistema
INADEQUATE
INSERTION OF R A N K S H I F T E D
THE PATIENTS'
NEEDS
CU
GROUPS
45.
o paciente com necessidade
ROOM
46.
(2)
AIR
sala de ar
(.11)
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG
47.
a crônica obstrutiva do pulmão doente
C O N G E S T I V E HEART
48.
DISEASE
(1)
FAILURE
congestão cardíaca da deficiencia
T5N - WORD-BOUND
ASCENDING
(2)
TRANSLATION
INFECTION
49.
ascendendo
infecção
50.
elevado
infecção
(.5)
51.
refluxo
infectado
(1).
NORMAL BLADDER
52.
(.2)
URETHRA
doença uretra
URETHRAL
54.
EMPTYING
normal, bexiga esvaziamento
A DISEASED
53.
(4)
uretral
(11
STRICTURE
estrutura
O)
FOLLOWING MAJOR SURGICAL
55.
seguinte maior cirúrgico conduta
INADEQUATE BLADDER
56.
PROCEDURES
Ol
EMPTYING
inadequada bexiga seca
INADEQUATE
INSERTION OF R A N K S H I F T E D
Ol
GROUPS
FOREIGN
exterior
do
estranhos
BODIES -
corpo
dos
corpos
NORMAL
normalidade
BLADDER
da b e x i g a
A DISEASED
um d o e n t e da
da
estenose
BED
camada
• LOWERED
baixa da
URETHRA
STRICTURE
PROLONGED
prolongada
vazia
uretra
URETHRAL
uretral
EMPTYING
de
REST
repouso
RESISTANCE
resistência
INADEQUATE. B L A D D E R
incapacidade
da b e x i g a
T6N - W O R D - B O U N D
TISSUE
EMPTYING
seca
TRANSLATION
INJURY
tecido
ofendido
tecido
prejudicado
tecido mal
PRESSOR
pressão
AGENTS
agente
PRONOUNCED
prenunciado
renal
RENAL
dano
DAMAGE
locutor
renal
danificado
SUBSEQUENT
subsequente
ACUTE TUBULAR
aguda tubular
INADEQUATE
,
o limite da
OF R A N K S H I F T E D
renal
OLIGURIA
oliguria
MISMATCHED
administração
de
TRANSFUSION
transfusão
T7N - W O R D - B O U N D
RESERVE
TRANSLATION
FUNCTIONAL
reserva funcional
CAPACITY
capacidade
T8N - W O R D - B O U N D
TRANSLATION
A GENERAL ACUTE UPPER RESPIRATORY
geral
aguda s u p e r i o r
THE C O M M O N
comum
respiratoria
INFECTION
infecção
COLD
frio
A P Y O G E N I C OR VIRUS
piogenica
ou virus
p y o g e n i c ou virus
INFECTION
infeccioso
infeccioso
PREDISPOSING
predisposta
GROUPS
FAILURE
a agudo da i n s u f i c i e n c i a
MARKED
necrose
INSERTION
A C U T E RENAL
NECROSIS
OR
CONTRIBUTORY'FACTORS
ou r e s p o n s á v e l
fatores
predispondo
ou c o n t r i b u t i v o s
CHRONIC
crónica
PULMONARY
OR C A R D I A C
p u l m o n a r ou c a r d í a c a
RECURRING
ocorrendo
ataques
ataques
INSERTION
A PYOGENIC
OR V I R U S
(de uma)
p y o g e n i c de v i r u s
CHRONIC
PULMONARY
OF R A N K S H I F T E D
T9N - W O R D - B O U N D
SYSTEMIC,
infeccioso
OR C A R D I A C
•SUBMUCOUS
o submucos
submuco
fibroide
submucos
fibroides
submucosa
submuco
submucos
fibroides
fibroso
fibrados
úteros
FIBROIDS
fibrosas
doente
OR C Y T O G E N E T I C
ou c i t o g e n e t i c o
THE DOUBLE D I D E L P H I C
ou d i d e l f i c o
DISEASE
TRANSLATION
ENDOCRINE
sistêmico, endocrino
GROUPS
INFECTION
p u l m o n a r do .cardíaco
o dobro
doença
ATTACKS
INADEQUATE
crônico
DISEASE
ataques
recorrendo
voltando
fatores
UTERUS
FACTORS
fatores
INADEQUATE
INSERTION OF R A N K S H I F T E D
A FIXED RETROD ISPLACED
UTERUS
96.
um determinado
97.
a fixação
98.
uma fixa retrodi s placenta do útero
resto de placenta
INFLAMMATORY
um velho curado de inflamatorio
A SILENT OR S Y M P T O M A T I C
100.
(5)
(1)
PROCESS
processo
(2)
CAUSE
a interna cervical
INADEQUATE
THE THIRD
OS
a abertura
INSERTION OF RANKSHIFTED
103.
o progresso maternal
104.
o avançamento maternal
crescimento
106.
aumento de
GROUPS
(.14)
ADVANCING MATERNAL
105.
(1\
TRIMESTER
um terço do trimestre
INCREASING
(1)
TRANSLATION
THE INTERNAL CERVICAL
102.
(2)
uma calma ou sintoma da causa
T10N - W O R D - B O U N D
101.
uterina
retro des 1 oca da do útero
AN OLD HEALED
99.
GROUPS
AGE
de idade
da idade
(2).
(J ).
PARITY
da igualdade
(2)
paridade
T12N - W O R D - B O U N D
TRANSLATION
THE RELATIVELY SUDDEN
INABILITY
107.
relatividade
súbita
108.
relatividade
repentina i n a b i l i t a d a .
(7)
109.
relatividade
brusca inabilidavel
(1)
INADEQUATE
GROUPS
DERANGEMENT
rude química de desarranjo
THE RELATIVELY
111.
a relatividade
112.
o relativo
113.
(4)
INSERTION OF RANKSHIFTED
GROSS CHEMICAL
110.
incapacitada
SUDDEN
{_2\
INABILITY
súbita da inabilidade
(_2)
súbito de inabilidade
T14N - INADEQUATE
INSERTION
A LARGE STAG-HORN
STONE
01)
OF RANKSHIFTED
GROUPS
urn largo veado de chifre de pedra
2.2.4.
O)
List of wbt and irg errors plus
co-occurring
a s p e c t s , with the percentage and number
students that made those
List
errors.
I
Errors of sequence and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n of
Number of students: 62
both
of
's structure
in the two text common to
groups
Std = number of students that made the
error
THE PUBLIC A U T H O R I T Y ' S R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S
S
t
d
%
as publicas autoridades responsáveis
6
9-,68
a pública autoridade
1
1,61
1
1,61
THE COUNTRY'S
responsável
UNIVERSITIES
os países u n i v e r s i t á r i o s
Std
cidades universitarias
3
Number of students
THE PATIENTS'
% _
in the Nursing
4,84
Group:
NEEDS
os pacientes necessários
10
26,31
as pacientes
11
28,95
necessidades
List II
Errors of sequence
in
's structure
Number of students: 6_2
in the two texts
common to
«
both
groups
Std = number of students that made the
THE-COUNTRY'S
DEVELOPMENTAL
o país do desenvolvimento
THE COUNTRY'S
NEEDS
error
Std
preciso
%__
3
4,84
2
3,23
UNIVERSITIES
os países dos u n i v e r s i t a r i o s
List III
Errors of s e q u e n c e , lexis and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n of 's
structure
Number of students
in the Physics Group: 2_4
Std = number of students that m?.de the
PLANCK'S UNIVERSAL
CONSTANT
planck's universal
constante
tãbua universal
constante
prancha universal
constante
error
Std
6
1
3
%__
25
4,17
12,5
PLANCK'S CONSTANT
Std
planck's constante
5
tãbua constante
1
prancha constante
3
%
21
4,17
12,5
List IV
Errors of sequence with Portuguese
Number of students: £ 2
deviant
forms
in the texts common to both
groups
Std = number of students
BOTH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
that made the error
INSTITUTIONS
ambos publico e p a r t i c u l a r instituições
EDUCATIONAL
POLICY
educacional
política
THE FEDERAL
SCHOOL
o federal
%
1
1,61
6
9,68
1
1,61
4
6,45
1
1,61
1
1,61
SYSTEM
e escolar sistema
THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM
o nacional
sistema
NEGROID
Std
e educacional
RACES
negroide
raças
ENVIRONMENTAL
ambiental
FORCES
forças
Number of students
THE MOST USEFUL MODERN
as mais Qti.l moderna
in the Physics Group: 24_
INVENTIONS
invenções
1
4,17
THE
'NOBLE'
METALS
Std
o nobre metais
PARTICULAR
4,17
GRADES
particular níveis
3
Number, of students
SPECIAL
5,26
nervos
THE RIGHT
COLON
2,63
colo
ASCENDING
INFECTION
ascendendo
elevado
infecção
infecção
PRONOUNCED
prenunciado
RENAL
renal
10,53
5
13,16
2,63
dano
NECROSIS
subsequente aguda tubular
2,63
necrose
A GENERAL ACUTE UPPER RESPIRATORY
INFECTION
geral
infecção
aguda s u p e r i o r respiratoria
THE COMMON
4
DAMAGE
SUBSEQUENT ACUTE TUBULAR
comum
38
NERVES
especial
o certo
in the Nursing Group:
12,5
2,63
COLD
18,42
frio
PREDISPOSING OR CONTRIBUTORY
predisposta ou responsável
predispondo
FACTORS
fatores
ou c o n t r i b u t i v o s
fatores
2,63
1
3
.
7,89
RECURRING ATTACKS
Std
ocorrendo ataques
J
2,63
recorrendo ataques
4
10,53
voltando ataques
1
2,63
3
7,89
1
2,63
SUBMUCOUS
%
FIBROIDS
submucosa fibroides
SYSTEMIC, ENDOCRINE OR CYTOGENETIC
FACTORS
sistêmico, endocrino ou citogenetico
List
fatores
V
Errors of sequence and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n
of H
Number of students: 6_2 in the texts common to both
groups
Std = number of students that made the
EDUCATIONAL
POLICY
errors
Std
%
educação política
1
1,61
educação policial
1
1,61
15
24,19
mudança necessária
1
1,61
mudanças precisas
2
3,22
6
9-,68
pele colorida
3
4,84
epiderme
2
3,22
THE CHANGING
NEEDS
m u d a n ç a s ne.cessarias
EXTENSION
extensão
OBJECTIVES
objetiva
SKIN COLOUR
colorida
HEAD SHAPE
-
Std
cabeça moldada
SICKLE-CELL
anêmica
Number of students
3,22
CLEANER
STRUCTURAL
estrutura
2
3,22
1
4,17
STEEL
rígida
REINFORCEMENTS
metais reforçados
STEEL
2
in the Physics Group: 2A
vacuo limpador
METAL
3,22
ANEMIA
sickle-celula
VACUUM
2
3
12,5
REINFORCEMENTS
aço reforçado
1
4,17
10
41,67
'construido em' tensão
1
4,17
construção
1
4,17
2
8,33
1
4,17
1
4,17
1
4,17
"BUILT
IN" STRESS
'construido em' pressão
em pressão
construção em stress
/
PREFABRICATED
UNITS
prefabricação
Unica
ASTRONOMICAL
BODY
astronomia corporal
REQUISITE CONDITIONS
requisitos
condicionados
•
'
THE WHOLE UNIVERSE
o todo universo
•
o conjunto universo
PLANETARY
Std
%
3
12,5
2
8,33
SYSTEM
planetário sistemático
THE NORMAL
3
12,5
EVENT
o normal
eventual
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
o físico ambiental
^
a física ambiental
THE VIOLET AND U L T R A - V I O L E T
violeta e ultra-violeta
2
8,33
1
4,17
1
4,17
8
33,33
END
final
LUMINOUS ATOM
i
luminosidade atômica
ELECTRIC
2
8,33
2
8,33
CHARGE
eletricidade
carregada
EVERY DIFFERENT
WAVE-LENGTH
toda diferente
onda-extensão
1
4,17
cada diferente
onda-comprimento
1
4,17
5
20,83
2
8,33
CONSTANT
RATIO
constante proporcional
DECAY
PRODUCTS
decadencia
produtiva
Number of students vin the Nursing
Group:
ASCENDING
refluxo
INFECTION
infectado
INADEQUATE BLADDER
inadequada
:
bexiga
seca
TISSUE
INJURY
tecido
ofendido
tecido
prejudicado
tecido
mal
PRONOUNCED
RENAL
DAMAGE
locutor
renal
RESERVE
FUNCTIONAL
reserva
funcional
PYOGENIC
SUBMUCOUS
submucos
suomuco
submucos
submuco
submucos
danificado
OR VIRUS
"pyogenic"
EMPTYING
CAPACITY
capacitada
INFECTION
ou v i r u s
infeccioso
FIBROIDS
fibrosas
fibrÕide
fibroides
fibroso
fibrados
THE R E L A T I V E L Y
SUDDEN
relatividade
subita
relatividade
repentina
relatividade
brusca
INABILITY
incapacitada
inabilitada
inabilitavel
THE TALL, THIN SHAPE
Std
%
o alto, delgada forma
3
4,84
os altos, os magros a forma
2
3,22
o alto, magra forma
3
4,84
1
1,61
EFFICIENT HEAT
LOSS
eficiente calor e perda
Number of students the Physics Group: 2_4
EVERYDAY
THINGS
todo dia coisas
FOOD
8,33
2
8,33
1
4,17
1
4,17
1
4,17
2
8,33
1
4,17
CYCLE
m o t o r , ciclo
SULPHUR
COMPOUNDS
enxofre e compostos
PARTICULAR
GRADES
particular e graus
METAL
2
ENGINE
vapor e maquinas
MOTOR
33,33
MIXERS
comida, m i s t u r a d o r e s
STEAM
8
BARS
metais e barras
AIR BUBBLES
ar e bolhas
METAL
REINFORCEMENTS
metal
reforços
STRETCHED STEEL
esticados
STEEL
WIRES
o aço e a r a m e s
WIRES
aço e a r a m e s
PREFABRICATED
UNITS
prefabricados
e
ASTRONOMICAL
unidades
BODY
astrônomo
corpo
REQUISITE
CONDITIONS
requisitos
e
requisitos,
condições
condições
V I O L E T AND U L T R A - V I O L E T
violetas
END
e ultrá-violetas
final
a violeta, a ultra-violeta
a violeta, a ultra-violeta,
ANY M I N U T E
e o fim
fim
PIECE
\
algum m i n u t o
e pedaço
EXTREME VISIBLE
RED
extremo
vermelha
visível
PULSATING
PROPERTIES
vibração
propriedade
pulsação
propriedade
RADIATION
radiação
EXTREMELY DELICATE METHODS
extremos
Std
delicados e métodos
Number of students
A RESULTANT
1
in the Nursing
%
4,17
Group: 3_8
DROP
o resultado pingo
3
, 7,89
um resultado, diminuição
2
5,26
experiência animais
2
5,26
teste animais
2
5,26
virus infecção
10
26,31
virus contagio
2
5,26
1
2,63
1
2,63
1
2,63
1
2,63
1
2,63
1
2,6 3
TEST
VIRUS
ANIMALS
INFECTION
THE LEFT COLIC
FLEXURE
esquerda cólica flexão
THE MARGINAL LYMPH NODES (1st Time)
a marginal
linfa nodulos
THE MARGINAL LYMPH NODES (2nd Time I
a marginal
linfa nodulos
THE LYMPH NODE
STATIONS
a linfa nodulo t r a n s m i s s o r
THE LEFT COLIC
ARTERIES
a esquerda cólica artértas
ROOM AIR
sala ar
Std
foice-celula
1
1,61
2
3,22
4
6,45
maior corpo da superficie
5
8,06
o mais largo corpo de superfície
2
3,22
HEREDITARY
de anemia
%
FORM
hereditario em forma
THE INTERVENING SEMITIC
PEOPLES
a intervenção semítica de povos
LARGER BODY
SURFACES
Number of students
ELECTRIC
MOTORS
a eletricidade do motor
ELECTRIC
2
8,33
2
8,33
2
8,33
1
4,17
2
8,33
2
8,33
MOTOR
a eletricidade do m o t o r
MOTOR
8,33
RAZORS
a eletricidade de barbeadores
ELECTRIC
2
TRAINS
a eletricidade de trens
ELECTRIC
in the Physics Group: 2_4
CYCLE
o motor de ciclo
ELECTRIC
MOTOR
a eletricidade do m o t o r
FEW MOVING
PARTS
•pouco movimento de partes
-ELECTRIC M O T O R .a e l e t r i c i d a d e
THE BEST KNOWN
do
motor
EXAMPLE
omelhor
c!e c o n h e c i d o
ORDINARY
IRON
o r d i n á r i o de
•EXPOSED
ferro
METALS
exposição
THE
exemplo
de m e t a i s
'NOBLE ' M E T A L S
a n o b r e z a de
metais
"INCREASING
QUANTITIES
a u m e n t o de
quantidade
SPECIFIC
MATERIALS
peculiaridades
particulares
PARTICULAR
de m a t e r i a i s
de m a t e r i a i s
GRADES
particularidade
:S PE Cl AL
dos
KINDS
especial
do
RELATIVE
CHEAPNESS
tipo
relatividade
-A W I D E R
a mais
graus
do
barato
RANGE
larga-das-areas
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Std
%
estrutura de ação
2
8,33
estrutura de fundição
2
8,33
armação de aço
7
29,17
estrutura de aço
1
4,17
8
33,33
1
4,17
2
-8,33
2
8,33
2
8,33
2
8,33
2
8,33
o requisito de condições
7
29,17
planos de condições
1
4,17
1
4,17
REINFORCED
reforçado
CONCRETE
com concreto
reforço de concreto
ROTATING
CYLINDER
rotação de cilindros
METAL
BARS
metal
de barras
METAL
REINFORCEMENTS
metais de reforço
EXTERNAL
LOAD
external
de carga
ASTRONOMICAL
BODY
astronauta do corpo
REQUISITE
PLANETARY
CONDITIONS
SYSTEM
planetas do sistema
INANIMATE MATTER
Std
inanimado
DUE
da m a t e r i a
8,33
do
4,17
COURSE
obrigação
DEFINITE
curso
KNOWLEDGE
d e f i n i ç ã o do
NATURAL
4,17
conhecimento
UNITS
«natureza de
LUMINOUS
4,17
uniões
ATOM
4,17
a luz do Storno
ANY M I N U T E
PIECE
a l g u m m i n u t o em
PULSATING
PROPERTIES
oscilação
de
CONSTANT
4,17
propriedades
RATIO
uma c o n s t a n t e
ALTERNATIVE
de
4,17
radio
FITS
alternativas
DETAILED
8,33
pedaço
de
12,5
períodos
EXAMINATION
^detalhe de
Number
X H E .OUTER
¿0 e x t e r i o r
1
examinação
of s t u d e n t s
in the N u r s i n g
4,17
G r o u p : _3§.
EAR
do;~ouvido
íO e x t e r n o do
ouvido
5
13,16
1
2 ,63
THE T H I N , F L E X I B L E
a delgada
flexão
THE INNER
EAR
o interior
DRUM
do
tímpano
do
ouvido
o i n t e r i o r da
orelha
o a n t e r i o r do
ouvido
A INFECTIOUS
VIRUS
uma i n f e c ç ã o
de
A RESULTANT
virus
DROP
um r e s u l t a d o
em
gotas
um r e s u l t a d o
da
queda
TEST
ANIMALS
testes em ani ma is
teste de
animal
teste no
animal
VIRUS
INFECTION
virus de
infecção
THE RIGHT
COLON
d i r e i t a do
colo
d i r e i t a de dois
THE M A R G I N A L
a margem
LYMPH
da linfa
THE MARGINAL
a margem
pontos
LYMPH
da linfa
NODES
nodulos
NODES
nodulo
ROOM
Std
AIR
sala de
11
ar
CHRONIC O B S T R U C T I V E
a crónica
obstrutiva
CONGESTIVE
congestão
FOREIGN
HEART
do p u l m ã o
2,63
doente
FAILURE
cardíaca
do
estranhos
da
5,26
deficiencia
corpo
dos
A DISEASED
URETHRAL
corpos
18,42
1
2,63
uretra
2,63
STRICTURE
uretral
da
LOWERED
RESISTANCE
b a i x a de
7
URETHRA
um doente de
2,63
estenose
resistência
A C U T E RENAL
MARKED
DISEASE
BODIES
exterior
o agudo
LUNG
28,95
2,63
FAILURE
renal
da
insuficiencia
7,89-
OLIGURIA
ü limite da
MISMATCHED
oliguria
5,26
TRANSFUSION
administração
de
P Y O G E N I C OR VIRUS
5,26
transfusão
INFECTION
(de uma)_ p y o g e n i c de virus
infeccioso
11
28,9-5
CHRONIC PULMONARY
OR CARDIAC DISEASE
crônico pulmonar do cardíaco
A FIXED RETRODISPLACED
um determinado
a fixação
doente
resto de placenta uterina
do útero
uma fixa retrodisplacenta
do Otero
INFLAMMATORY
2
5,26
2
5,26
5
13,16
1
2,63
2
5,26
1
2,63
14
36,84
2
5,26
1
2,63
2
5,26
2
5,26
2
5,26
2
5,26
11
28,9-5
PROCESS
um velho curado de inflamatorio
processo
A SILENT OR SYMPTOMATIC CAUSE _
,
uma calma ou sintoma de causa
T H E THIRD
%
UTERUS
retrodes1ocada
AN OLD HEALED
' Std
-
TRIMESTER
um terço do trimestre
ADVANCING MATERNAL
AGE
o progresso maternal
de idade
o avançamento maternal
INCREASING
crescimento
da idade
PARITY
da igualdade
aumento da paridade
GROSS CHEMICAL
DERANGEMENT
rude química de desarranjo
THE RELATIVELY
SUDDEN
INABILITY
a relatividade
súbita da inabilidade
o relativo súbito de inabilidade
List rx
Errors of sequence and addition of
inadequate
rankshifted. groups
Number of students: 6_2 in the texts common to both
-groups
.Std = number of students that made the error
A.NEW UNIVERSITY TEACHING LAW
Std
uma nova universidade de ensinamento de lei
%
2
3,22
4
6,45
2
3,22
15
24,19
1
1 »61
3
3,84
3
4,84
1
1,61
TEACHING LAW
-ensino de lei
ensinamento
EXTENSION
.
de lei
OBJECTIVES
extensão de objetivos
extensão de objetivados
.
SKIN COLOUR
pele de cor
HAIR TYPE
cabelo do tipo
EFFICIENT HEAT LOSS
^eficiência do calor perdido
Number of students
STEAM
ENGINE
vapores ou fumaça em maquinas
PETROL
in the Physics Group: 24-
1
4,17
1
4,17
ENGINES
.petroleo. de maquinas
ELECTRIC SUPPLY
eletricidade
POWER
Std
LINE
de suprir
8,33
linha
POINT
8,33
força de ponto
AIR
BUBBLES
25
ar de bolhas
STRETCHED STEEL WIRES
8,33
esticado aço de arame
STEEL
REINFORCEMENT
a rigidez do
STEEL
4,17
reforço
WIRES
8,33
aço de arame
DECAY
PRODUCTS
declínio de
produtos
1
4,17
declínio de
produção
2
8,33
EVERY DIFFERENT
toda diferente
WAVE-LENGTH
onda de
EXTREME VISIBLE RED
RADIATION
extrema visibilidade
para o vermelho
extrema
de vermelho
visibilidade
A RAPIDLY-MOVING
radiação
radiação
1
4,17
4
16,66
vermelha
radiação
2
8,33
de vermelho
radiação
1
4,17
extrema de visível
extrema visível
4,17
comprimento
PARTICLE
um rápido m o v i m e n t o de
partícula
12,5
uma ligeira mudança de partícula
THIS BIG BANG
„esta grande explosão
.DIFFUSE BACKGROUND
de idéia
Number of students
A SPIRAL SHELL-LIKE
54,17
1
4,17
1
4,17
3
STRUCTURE
T H R E E TINY D O U G H N U T - S H A P E D
HOLLOñ
tres pequenas massas formadas
THE LYMPH D R A I N A G E SYSTEM
1
2,63
9
23,68
1
2,63
4
10,53
4
10,53
1
2,63
1
2,63
2
5,26
4
10,53
TUBES
de ocos tubos
tres pequenos sonhos de m o d e l o cóncavo tubos
(1st Time)
a linfa drenagem do sistema
THE LYMPH DRAINAGE SYSTEM
a .linfa drenagem
12,5
in the Nursing Group: _38
espiral em concha como e s t r u t u r a
(2nd Time)
do sistema
.a linfa da drenagem sistemática
STATIONS
o linfa no da estação
NEEDS
o pa ci ente com necessidade
PROLONGED BED
13
MATERIAL.
-difusão de e x p e r i ê n c i a material
THE PATIENTS'
%
IDEA
esta grande porção de idéia
THE LYMPH NODE
Std
REST
^prolongada camada de repouso
NORMAL B L A D D E R
normalidade
INADEQUATE
EMPTYING
da b e x i g a
BLADDER
imcapacitade
vazia
%
1
2,63
3
7,89
1
2,63
EMPTYING
da b e x i g a
A LARGE S T A G - H O R N
Std
seca
STONE
urn largo veado de c h i f r e de pedra
List X
Errors of s e q u e n c e
and lack
of r a n k s h i f t e d
N u m b e r of s t u d e n t s : 6^2 in the texts c o m m o n
groups
to
both
groups
Std = n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s
A NEW U N I V E R S I T Y
TEACHING
uma nova u n i v e r s i d a d e
UNIVERSITY
TEACHING
universidade
that m a d e the
LAW
Std
ensinando
lei
.%
1
1,61
3
4,84
METHODS
ensinando métodos
N u m b e r of s t u d e n t s
THIS BIG B A N G
errors
in the P h y s i c s
G r o u p : 24_
IDEA
esta g r a n d e g o l p e a d a
A RAPIDLY-MOVING
idéia
1
1,61
13
54,17
PARTICLE
uma l i g e i r a m e n t e movei
partícula
L i s t XI
INADEQUATE TRANSLATION
N u m b e r of s t u e d e n t s
OF
in the P h y s i c s G r o u p : 24_
Std = n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s
THE EARLY
SCIENTISTS
(m)
that made
the
Std
errors
%
Std
%
(os) antes cientistas,
3
12,5
(os) cedo cientistas,
1
4,17
List XII
Errors of
collocation
Number of students
in the Nursing Group: 38
Std = number of students
that made the
THE THIN, FLEXIBLE DRUM
o m a g r o , flexível
A RESULTANT
errors
Std
tímpano
%__
1
2,63
2
5,26
DROP
uma resultante denuncia
List XIII
Errors due to formal
similarity
b e t w e e n English
and
/
P o r t u g u e s e , w i t h / w i t h o u t error of sequence
- N u m b e r of students
THE ONLY OBJECT
in the Physics
Group: 24
Std
%
4
16,7
A
o so objeto
THIS LATTER
PART
esta mais tardia parte
T H E NEXT
'Number
uretral
4,17
13
54,17
INSTANT
neste instante
.URETHRAL
1
of students
in the Nursing Group:
3^
STRICTURE
estrutura
1
2,63
List
S i n g u l a r for plural
N u m b e r of s t u d e n t s
CERTAIN
PATTERNS
o certo padrão
XIV
with
the a d d i t i o n
in the N u r s i n g
of a deictic
G r o u p : J38
Std
%
7
18,42
APPENDIX
3. Calculations
and statistical
3.1. The test of
3
hypotheses
proportion
3.1.1. The test of p r o p o r t i o n applied to the
from the non-specific
H0-
texts, in the Physics
3
1
H, : p <
3
H = (33 - 0,5) - ?7,67
1
(18,44) /
<
^5% ~ "
P0
x
t
1
=
2
- P0>
4,83
]
12
4,29
1>12. H 0
(x - 0,5) - np
n
is to be
accepted
2
l/?
3.1.2. The test of proportion
applied to the
from the n o n - s p e c i f i c t e x t s , in the Nursing
V
p *
Group.
1
P £
I = —
results
results
Group.
1
3
1
¡V -
p
Z =
(30 - 0,5) - 24
<
1 2
(16,08) /
^5%
=
"
<
1»12.
=
5 ,50
3?
4 ,01
H0
is to be
accepted.
3.1.3. The test of p r o p o r t i o n applied to the
from the specific texts, in the Physics
Group.
results
z = (126 - g, 5) - n o
15,50
=
1
C73,7) /'s
^5% ~
8Q
8,58
»65 < 1,80.
3.1.4.
]
H 0 is to be
accepted
The test of proportion applied to the
from the specific texts, in the Nursing
H0: P *
—
h : p <
— L
3
1
2 = (113 - 0,5) - 178,6
(119,66)
Z
5%
3.2.
=
.
-66,1
=
_6
Group.
05
10,93
-1>65 > -6,05.
Test of
=
results
HQ
is to be
rejected
Student
To verify w h e t h e r the average of error rates
per
student, in each ngp, in the s p e c i f i c texts was different
from
the average of error rates per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, in the
specific texts, the
't1
averages, was applied
test of S t u d e n t ,
( x-j 4
of the two n o n - s p e c i f i c
x^ )•
for the difference
first sample
texts, from which
nonof
(n-j) consists
the average
error rates per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, and the standard
(x-j)
of
deviation
(s-j) have beer, estimated. The s e c o n d sample was formed by the
specific texts, from w h i c h
the a v e r a g e
(-j^) of error rates
student, in each ngp, and the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
—
estimatedjx
—
is obtained from the formula x =
y Xí
n
per
($£) have been
where
x
i
is
the error rate per s t u d e n t , in each ngp, in each text, and n is
the number of translated texts. The formula for s is
_
H;(*i
- x)2
We have supposed that s^ ^ s 2
and the
't'
test was
as follows:
_ X1
t
"
x
2
2
,
1
n
t]
2
. W T
0
0
1 y:l + "2*2
:
Wj . + w 2
= t(l-
in .......
which w, =
,
Non-specific
(ni
n
i
=
(Physics
2
texts
= 0,91
Specific texts
2
S.
, w9 =
if
ss
and statistical
2
2
,
2
- 1) and t 2 = t(l- - i - ) (n 2
texts
= 1 ,52
Non-specific
x1
is to be rejected
1
3.2.1. Calculations
x1
= x2
S 2 \ 1/2
+ —iL 1
'
t >
Ho: x 1
- 1).
hypotheses
Group)
s -j = 0,19
(Nursing
n-j = 2
(Physics
Group)
s-j = 0 , 4 8
Group)
x 2 = 2,42
s 2 = 1,42
n
2 »
12
Specific texts
(Nursing
Group)
x 2 = 0,95
n 2 = 14
s 2 = 0,70
3.2.1.1. N o n - s p e c i f i c and specific texts
H : x, = x 0
o
1
2
H1Ï.X1
+ x2
(Physics
Group)
the
ngps
e=
12.02
M
5 , 1 7 5 2 X 29
\]
3.3.2.1.2.
the
H^0-2
: V
150,0808
>02
0 ,98 = 9 8%
=
12,250745
i rg e r r o r rates and the n u m b e r of words
16,78
3.3.2.2
16,78
=
\Jl 0 ,3053 X 29
forming
the
Ç
12,85
s
\J
Nursing
=
0 > 9 7
=
g j %
1 7 ,287385
Group
r a t e s and the n u m b e r of w o r d s
12,85
=
3,1019 X 54
the
16,78
ngps
3.3.2.2.2.
forming
=
\J 298,8537
3.3.2.2.1. wbt error
=
12
ngps
C=
ç
„
\ | 167,5026
=
12,85
•
"12,9422
=
0 ) 9 9
=
i rg e r r o r r a t e s and the n u m b e r of
S9%
words
ngps
37,06
_
\ | 2 8 , 7 2 3 8 X 65
=
37,06
\ J 1867,047
=
37,06
43,209339
=
0,86
= 86%
in
APPENDIX 4 -
DECLARATIONS
SERVIÇO PÜBÜCO FEDERAL
UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL
DA PARAÍBA
CENTRO DE CIÊNCIAS DA
SAÜDE
D E C L A R A Ç Ã O
DECLARO,
que os alunos d,o curso de
do'Centro de Ciincias da Saúde da Universidade
Medicina
Federal
da Paraíba tem necessidade.de c o n s u l t a r , para estudo ,
livros escritos em inglês. Mesmo os iniciantes
esta
necessidade.
João Pessoa, 26 de janeiro de 1 981.
JMjl
A d a h y l s o n da Costa
DIRETOR
Silva
tem
SERVIÇO POBLICO FEDERAL
UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DA PARAÍBA
CENTRO DE CIÊNCIAS EXATAS E DA NATUREZA
DEPARTAMENTO DE FÍSICA
:
D E C L A R A Ç Ã O
' -
,
/
Declaro para os devidos f i n s que l i v r o s em inglês
constam da bibliografia—da-programa de d i v e r s a s d i s c i p l i n a s , do. curso de Bacharelado em F í s i c a ,
João P e s s o a ,
28 de J a n e i r o de, 1981
JIJLlfPüE MELO TEIXEIRA
CHEFE DO D.FÍSICA
C.C.E. N . - F Í S I C Á