TONE AND MORPHEME RULES
IN BAMILEKE-NGYEMBOON
by
Stephen C. Anderson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Linguistics)
August 1983
Electronic file: November, 2005
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
90007
(The electronic copy of this dissertation has been prepared for
downloading over the internet. This electronic copy will produce
a copy that is almost the same as the original, with the
exception of having corrected a few minor errors and with the
exception of leaving out this particular section where the
dissertation committee of Larry Hyman, Bernard Comrie and John
Stephens and the dean of the graduate school signed the
manuscript on May, 10, 1983. The interested reader must consult
a paper copy if interested in those administrative details.)
2
Table of Contents
Page
1.0.
2.0.
Introduction
1
1.1.
Language and People
1
1.2.
Consonants and Vowels
4
Tone Rules
2.1.
Previous Work
12
2.2.
Nouns
15
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
3.0.
6
2.2.1.
In isolation
16
2.2.2.
In associative noun phrases
28
Verbs
52
2.3.1.
With realis/irrealis tones
60
2.3.2.
With imperfective aspect
88
2.3.3.
With tense markers
104
2.3.4.
With progressive aspect markers
150
2.3.5.
With negative markers
167
Between Phrases
176
2.4.1.
Between subject and verb
176
2.4.2.
Between object and verb
208
Overall Rule Ordering
Verb Paradigms
232
246
3.1.
Remote Past (P4)
252
3.2.
Distant Past (P3)
257
3.3.
Yesterday Past (P2)
263
3.4.
Today Past (P1)
268
3.5.
Zero (P0 and PRES)
278
3.6.
Today Future (F1)
288
3.7.
Tomorrow Future (F2)
292
3.8.
Distant Future (F3)
298
3.9.
Remote Future (F4)
301
4.0.
Morpheme Rules
306
5.0.
Conclusion
339
References
344
Appendix A
347
Appendix B
351
3
CHAPTER 1
0-/-Hmsqnctbshnm
Sgdoqdrdmschrrdqs`shnmhrbnmbdqmdcvhsgsgdbnlokdwsnm`k
ogdmnldm`entmchmsgdFq`rrehdkcrA`mstk`mft`fdrneB`ldqnnm+
rodbhehb`kkxsgdMfxdla——mZœæ,fxd∆l,a—≈9¶ \k`mft`fdronjdmhmsgdVdrsdqm
Oqnuhmbd-Sgdoqhl`qx`hlnesghrchrrdqs`shnmhrsnoqdrdms`rxrsdl`shb
`mcdwok`m`snqx`bbntmsneu`qhntrsnmd`mclnqogdldqtkdr-Sne`bhkhs`sd
sghrotqonrd+`m`tsnrdfldms`kognmnknfhb`ksgdnqxvhkkaddloknxdcsn
oqdrdmssgdsnm`kogdmnldm`hm`rdwokhbhs`eq`ldvnqj`ronrrhakd-@
rdbnmc`qx`hlnesghrchrrdqs`shnmhrsn`bbntmsenq`vhcdqrbnodnesnm`k
c`s`sg`mg`roqduhntrkxaddmonrrhakdhm`Fq`rrehdkcrA`mstk`mft`fd-
0-0-K`mft`fd`mcOdnokd
SgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fdhro`qsnesgdA`lhkdjdk`mft`fdfqnto
vghbghrronjdmlnrskxhmsgdMnqsgvdrsdqmbnqmdqnesgdVdrsdqm
OqnuhmbdnesgdTmhsdcQdotakhbneB`ldqnnm-@bbnqchmfsnsgd0865
tmneehbh`kbdmrtr+rnld7/+///Mfxdla——mrod`jdqrkhudhmsgdehudqtq`k
bghdecnlrkhrsdcadknv9
(1)
Chiefdom
Division
Population
Area
Density
Bangang
Bamboutos
29,239
40 mi2
731
Batcham
Bamboutos
27,172
28 mi2
970
Balatchi
Bamboutos
7,471
12 mi2
623
Bamougong
Bamboutos
6,809
6 mi2
1135
Balessing
Menoua
9,813
24 mi2
409
80,504
110 mi2
732
Totals
Hsb`madrddmeqnlsgdoqdbdchmfehftqdrsg`ssgdMfxdla——modnokd
g`ud`ghfgonotk`shnmcdmrhsx+`udq`fhmfnudq6//odnokdsnsgdrpt`qd
lhkd-Hme`bs+sghr`qd`bnms`hmrnmdnesgdlnrscdmrdbnmbdmsq`shnmrne
odnokdentmchm`mxqtq`k`qd`hm`kkneB`ldqnnm-
Hm`cchshnmsnsgdqtq`konotk`shnm+l`mxMfxdla——mg`udlnudchmsn
u`qhntrsnvmr`mcbhshdrneB`ldqnnmvgdqdsgdhqoqhmbho`knbbto`shnmhr
trt`kkxrsnqdjddohmf-Sgdsnvmr`mcbhshdrg`uhmfsgdfqd`sdrsmtladqrne
Mfxdla——mrod`jdqr`qdLantc`+Crbg`mf+A`entrr`l+Mjnmfr`la`+
Cnt`k``mcX`ntmcd-Henmdbntmsrsgdrdtqa`mrod`jdqr+`mc`krn
`rrtldr`onotk`shnmfqnvsgq`sdne1odqbdmsodqxd`qnudqsgdo`rsrhw
xd`qr+sgdsns`konotk`shnmneMfxdla——mrod`jdqroqna`akx`ooqn`bgdr
0//+///-
LnrsnesgdMfxdla——modnokdkhuhmfhmsgdqtq`kbghdecnlrl`jd
sgdhqkhuhmfax`fqhbtkstqd-Sgdchuhrhnmnek`anqhrrtbgsg`sldmbtkshu`sd
sgdb`rgbqnonebneeddvghkdvnldmbtkshu`sdsgdenncbqnor-Lnrsnesgd
2
tqa`mcvdkkdqr+nmsgdnsgdqg`mc+`qdhmunkudchmu`qhntrbnlldqbh`k
`bshuhshdrnqfnudqmldms`kctshdr-
Khmfthrshb`kkx+sgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fdadknmfrsnsgdA`lhkdjdrta,
fqntonesgdLa`l,Mj`lrta,chuhrhnmnesgdFq`rrehdkcrA`mstk`mft`fd
e`lhkx-Sghrenkknvrsgdbk`rrhehb`shnmnesgdFAVF'Fq`rrehdkcrA`mst
VnqjhmfFqnto+`rhmRs`kkbto+087/943`mcKdqnx+0866906,07(+vghbg
khrsrsgduhkk`fdneA`mf`mf`rqdoqdrdms`shudnesgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fd+
`radknv9
'1(@(VDRSDQMFQ@RREHDKCR
k-Ring9K`lmrn+@fgdl+dsb-
1-Menchum9Na`mf-
2-Widikum9Lnfg`ln+Mfhd+dsb-
3-Lower Mundani-Njen9KnvdqLtmc`mh+Midm-
A(LA@L,MJ@L
k-Nkambe9Khlatl+dsb-
1-Nun9A`ltm+Ltmf`j`+dsb-
2-Ngemba9L`mjnm+A`ets+dsb-
3-Bamileke9A`mf`mf+Crbg`mf+Ed&ed&+A`mcitm+
A`mf`mfsdæ+dsb-
Sgd`tsgnqg`raddmkhuhmfhmsgduhkk`fdneA`mf`mf`mcrstcxhmfsghr
o`qshbtk`qk`mft`fdnee`mcnmrhmbdd`qkx0863-
3
0-1-Bnmrnm`msr`mcUnvdkr
SgdenkknvhmfhmudmsnqxneMfxdla——mognmdldr'bnmrnm`msr`mc
unvdkr(hrs`jdmeqnl@mcdqrnm'0865987+001(9
(3)
Consonants
Vowels
t
k
i
u
b
d
g
e
o
m
n
B
C
pf
ts
f
s
v
z
wF
y
a
D
w
It should be noted that several phonological processes
produce a wide variety of phonetic realizations for the
various units charted above. Since the NgyembDDn language is
spoken in a region where French is the official language,
the NgyembDDn orthography has been modified to include the
writing of various allophones. The following orthographical
symbols are currently in use:
4
(4)
Consonants
Vowels
p
t
k
b
d
m
‘
i
u
g
e
o
n
B
C
pf
ts
c
f
s
sh
v
z
j
a
D
l
wF
y
w
Sghrchrrdqs`shnmvhkkenkknvsgdfdmdq`kqtkdrnesgdMfxdla——m
nqsgnfq`ogxvhsgsgdrhmfkddwbdoshnmnefknss`krsno+vghbghr`m`kxydc`r
sgdrxkk`akd,ehm`ku`qh`msnesgdognmdld.j.hmsgdognmnknfx'@mcdqrnm+
0865987(+atshrhmchb`sdchmsgdnqsgnfq`ogxax`m`onrsqnogd-Hmsghr
chrrdqs`shnm+sgdfknss`krsnohr`kv`xrhmchb`sdcaxsgdБrhfmhmnqcdqsg`s
hsmnsadbnmetrdcvhsgcnvmrsdovghbghrrhfm`kkdchmsghrchrrdqs`shnmax
sgd`onrsqnogdatsqdl`hmrtmvqhssdmhmsgdmnql`knqsgnfq`ogx-Sgd
l`mmdqnevqhshmfMfxdla——msnmdrvhkkadlnqdbnlokdwhmsghr
chrrdqs`shnmsg`mhmsgdneehbh`knqsgnfq`ogx-Sgdrxrsdlnevqhshmfsnmdr
`cnosdchmsgdenkknvhmfrdbshnmvhkk`kknvtrsnl`jd`kksgdchrshmbshnmr
mdbdrr`qxenq`chrrdqs`shnmvghbghrenbtrhmfnmsnm`kogdmnldm`-
5
CHAPTER 2
1-/-SnmdQtkdr
Hm`rstcxnesnmdtmhudqr`kraxGnladqs'08639066,7(+sgd`ci`bdms
k`mft`fdneCrbg`mfv`rbhsdc`rtmhptd`lnmfsgdvnqkc&rk`mft`fdrhm
onrrdrrhmfsvnqdk`sdcsnm`kogdmnldm`9cnvmrsdoodcghfgsnmdrvhsgnts
`tsnl`shbcnvmcqhes`mccnvmrsdoodcknvsnmdr-SgdMfxdla——m
k`mft`fdrg`qdransgnesgdrdbg`q`bsdqhrshbrvhsghsrmdhfganq-Sgd
tmhptdbg`q`bsdqnesgdsnm`kogdmnldm`hmsgdrdsvnk`mft`fdrl`jdr
sgdhqc`s``kksgdlnqdhlonqs`msenq`mxbnloqdgdmrhudsgdnqxne
ognmnknfx-Hshrvhsg`uhdvneetqsgdqdwdlokhexhmfsghrtmtrt`kjhmcne
rxrsdlvghkdjddohmfhmlhmcsgdsgdnqdshb`khrrtdrhmunkudcsg`ssgd
oqdrdmsrstcxhrneedqdc-
Sgdsgdnqdshb`k`ooqn`bg`cnosdchmsghrchrrdqs`shnmvhkkad
`tsnrdfldms`k-Sgddrrdmbdne`m`tsnrdfldms`k`ooqn`bghrsg`s
rdfldms`k`mcrtodqrdfldms`kogdmnldm``qdqdoqdrdmsdcnmrdo`q`sd
!shdqr-!Sgdtmhsrnesgdrdshdqr`qd!`rrnbh`sdc!vhsgtmhsrnmnsgdqshdqr
axld`mrne`rrnbh`shnmkhmdr-Onrhshmf`rdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq'vgdqd
rxkk`ahbtmhsr`qdrxlankhydcaxb`ohs`kkdssdqrkhjd@+A+B+dsb-(`mc`
snm`kshdq'vgdqdghfg`mcknvsnmdr`qdrxlankhydcaxG`mcK
qdrodbshudkx(+bnmrsqtbshnmrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf`qdsxohb`k9
6
(5)
A
B
C
D
E
L H
H
L H
L
L H
F
etc.
H H
etc.
Rhmbd`rrnbh`shmf`mcqd`rrnbh`shmfsnmdrsnu`qhntrrxkk`akdrhrnmdne
sgdl`inqs`rjrnertbg`sgdnqx+u`qhntrbnmudmshnmrg`udaddmonrhsdcsn
`hchmsghrs`rj-Nmdoqhmbhokdsg`sv`ronrhsdc`r`tmhudqr`kld`mrne
`rrnbh`shmf!ekn`shmf!'tm`rrnbh`sdc(nq!eqdd!snmdrv`rsgd!Vdkk,
EnqldcmdrrBnmchshnm!'VEB(+sgdenkknvhmfadhmfsgdudqrhnmne
Fnkcrlhsg'0865916(9
(6) Well-Formedness Condition
(1) a. All vowels are associated with at least one tone;
b. All tones are associated with at least one vowel.
(2)
Association lines do not cross.
NmdnesgdqdrtksrnesgdoqdbdchmfVEBhrsg`smnsnmdr`qdkdes
ekn`shmfenqudqxknmf-U`qhntrkhmfthrsr'khjdBkdldmsr`mcEnqc+
086891/7(g`udrgnvmsg`ssgdoqdbdchmfVEBhrsnnrsqnmf`mcg`ud
sgdqdenqdoqnonrdcdkhlhm`shmfo`qs0a-Vdg`udentmcsghrjhmcne
qdrsqhbsdc`ooqn`bgsn`krnadsgdlnrsoqnctbshudenqMfxdla——m-Ntq
o`qshbtk`q`m`kxrhrstqmrsgdbnmchshnmnm`kkunvdkradhmf`rrnbh`sdcsn`s
kd`rsnmdsnmd'0``anud(hmsn`vdkk,enqldcmdrrsnmdqtkd'VEQ(
7
cdrbqhadchmrdbshnm1-2-0-adknv-Ntq`m`kxrhrcndrmns`bbdossgd
qdrsqhbshnmsg`s`kksnmdr`qd`rrnbh`sdcsn`skd`rsnmdunvdk'0a`anud(-
Vd`qdsgdqdenqdkdesvhsgnmkxsgdqdrshbshnmsg`s`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrmdudq
bqnrr+`mcsgdqdenqd`cnossgdenkknvhmflnchehdcudqrhnm`rntqVEB9
(7)
Well-Formedness Condition (Modified Version)
Association lines do not cross.
Sgdoq`bshb`kcheedqdmbdadsvddmsgdFnkcrlhsg&rVEB`mcntq
bnlahm`shnmne`VEQ`mc`ltbg,qdrsqhbsdcVEBhrsg`ssgdFnkcrlhsg&r
etkkdqudqrhnm`kv`xr`rrnbh`sdr`mxsnmdrentmcsnadekn`shmf`s`mxshld
hmsgdcdqhu`shnm-Ntqqdrsqhbsdcudqrhnmcndrmnscnsghr+`kknvhmftrsgd
onrrhahkhsxnesnmdrekn`shmfdudm`ssgddmcnecdqhu`shnmr-Sghrhrbqtbh`k
enqntq`m`kxrhrhmsg`ssgdeqdptdmscnvmrsdorentmchmMfxdla——m`qd
onrhsdcsnqdrtkseqnlitrsrtbgekn`shmfsnmdr`ssgddmcnecdqhu`shnmr-
U`qhntrqdrsqhbshnmrnmsgdonvdqne`tsnrdfldms`ksgdnqhdrg`udaddm
oqnonrdc+rdudq`ktmcdqsgdgd`chmfne!Nakhf`snqxBnmsntqOqhmbhokd-!
Enqsgdoqdrdmschrrdqs`shnm+vdrg`kk`cnossgdqdrsqhbshnmoqnonrdcax
Gxl`m'0871`94(sg`soqdbktcdr`mxk`mft`fdeqnlg`uhmflnqogdldr
vghbgbnms`hmsvn`ci`bdmshcdmshb`ksnmdr`ro`qsnesgdhqchbshnm`qx
dmsqhdr-Sgtr+sgdsnmdrdqhdrGG`mcKKb`mmdudqqdrtkseqnl`rhmfkd
tmcdqkxhmflnqogdld-
8
Sgdsnmdqtkdrhmsghrchrrdqs`shnmvhkkaddw`lhmdchmsgqddrs`fdr+
rs`qshmfvhsgsgnrdmdbdrr`qxhmsgd`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rd+bnmshmthmf
vhsgsgnrdmddcdchmsgdudqaogq`rd+`mcehmhrghmftovhsgsgnrdvghbg
nodq`sdadsvddmogq`rdr-
Sn`hcsgdqd`cdq+sgdu`qhntrsnmdrhmMfxdla——mvhkkadqdedqqdcsn
hmu`qhntrv`xr-Sgdentqchrbqdsdsnm`kkdudkrvhkkadqdedqqdcsnax
dhsgdqsgdhqm`ld+mtldq`knqch`bqhshb-Sgdmtldq`krfhudmhmsgd
enkknvhmfbg`qsr`qdfhudm`rdw`lokdrnesgdkdudknesgdsnmdvgdmhs
hlldch`sdkxenkknvro`trd'h-d-hmsgd`ardmbdnesgdhmektdmbdnensgdq
cnvmrsdor(9
(8)
Level Tones
Name
Numeral
Diacritic
High
1
aJ
Downstepped-High
2
Ka
Low
3
aL
Downstepped-Low
4
Ma
Hm`cchshnm+`snmdfkhcdb`madenqldcaxinhmhmfnm`rhmfkdrxkk`akd
bdqs`hmbnlahm`shnmrneu`qhntrkdudkr+`radknv9
9
(9)
Tone Glides
Name
Numeral
Diacritic
Rising
31
aN
Downstepped-Rising
42
Oa
Falling
13
aP
Downstepped-Falling
24
Qa
High-Downstepped-High
12
Ra
Rising-Downstepped-High
312
a
S
Low-Downstepped-Low
34
a
T
Downstepped-Low-Downstepped-Low
45
Ua
Ehm`kkx+hmbdqs`hmghfgkxqdrsqhbsdcdmuhqnmldmsr+`cntakd
cnvmrsdoodcghfgsnmdvhkknbbtq-Hsg`rsgdtmtrt`kpt`khshdrneadhmf`
qd`k'h-d-ognmnknfhb`k(ghfgsnmdvghkdadhmfqd`khydcognmdshb`kkx`ssgd
r`ldkdudk`r`mnql`kknvsnmd+`radknv9
(10)
Name
Double-Downstepped-High
Numeral
Diacritic
3
Va
Hm`cchshnmsnsgdoqdbdchmfm`lhmfcduhbdr+sgdrxlankrG`mcKvhkk
adtrdchmsgdsdwsnesgdchrrdqs`shnm`mchmsgd`tsnrdfldms`kqtkdrsn
qdedqsnghfg`mcknvsnmdrqdrodbshudkx-Sgdch`bqhshbrvhkkadtrdc
oqhl`qhkxsnhmchb`sdsgdsnmdentmcnm`rodbhehbrxkk`akdhm`mdw`lokd
in relation to the tone of the preceding syllable-Sgdrd
10
ch`bqhshbrvhkksgtrhmchb`sdsgdrxrsdl`shbognmdshbkdudk+`kdudk
oqdbdchmfsgd`ookhb`shnmnesgd`bbtltk`shudcnvmrsdoqtkd-Sgd
mtldq`kr+nmsgdnsgdqg`mc+vhkkadtrdcsnhmchb`sdsgdsnmdne`rxkk`akd
in relation to the tone register at the beginning of
the sentence-Sgdtrdnesgdmtldq`krvhkkdm`akdtrsnjddosq`bjne
sgd`bst`kognmdshbkdudkne`rodbhehbrxkk`akdhmknmfdqtssdq`mbdrvhsg
ltkshokdcnvmrsdoohmfnesgdsnm`kqdfhrsdq-Sghrhrbqtbh`kenq`k`mft`fd
khjdMfxdla——mvgdqdsgdeqdptdmsnbbtqqdmbdnecnvmrsdovhkkqdrtkshm
ognmdshbkdudkrne7nq8axsgddmcne`bk`trdnqrdmsdmbd'vgdqd`o`trd
`kknvrsgdrod`jdqsnqdrdsghrsnmdqdfhrsdq(-@bkd`qdw`lokdnertbg
ltkshokdcnvmrsdoohmfb`madbqd`sdcaxenqlhmf`knmf`rrnbh`shudmntm
ogq`rdtrhmfsgdr`ldvnqcnudq`mcnudq+`radknv9
(11) leLtyoN leJtyKo leJtyKo leJtyKo leJtyKo leJtyKo leJtyKo leJtyKo leJtyKo
3 31
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
"the point of the point of the point of the point ..."
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrgnvrsg`scnvmrsdoknvdqrsgddmshqdsnmd
qdfhrsdq-Sghrknvdqhmfhr`krnrgnvmsnadbtltk`shud+kd`chmfsn`
ognmnknfhb`kGsnmd`ssgddmcnesgdogq`rdvghbghroqnmntmbdcnm`
ltbgknvdqkdudk'8(sg`msgdKsnmd`ssgdadfhmmhmfnesgdogq`rd'2(-Hs
hrnmkxvgdmsgdMfxdla——mrod`jdq`bst`kkxo`trdrsg`sgdqdrdsrghr
11
knvdqdcsnmdqdfhrsdqa`bjtosnhsrnqhfhm`kkdudk-Sgdoqdchbshnmne
`bst`kkxvgdmsgdrod`jdqvhkkknvdqghrsnmdqdfhrsdqnmdnqdudmsvn
mnsbgdrhrnmdnesgdl`inqbg`kkdmfdrsnhmsdqdrsdckhmfthrsr-
1-0-OqduhntrVnqj
@mxchrrdqs`shnmnmsgdcheehbtkssnm`kogdmnldm`ne`A`lhkdjd
k`mft`fdhrmdbdrr`qhkxathkstonmsgdoqduhntrvnqjnensgdqkhmfthrsr-
U`qhntrkhmfthrsrg`udl`cdl`inqbnmsqhatshnmrsnsgdnmfnhmfrstcxne
A`lhkdjdsnm`kodqstqa`shnmr+d`bgathkchmftonmsgdentmc`shnmrk`hcax
sgdenqldq-Ehqrs+hmghr0860vnqjnmmnlhm`krhmsgdA`mf`mfsd
k`mft`fd+Unnqgndudrtffdrsdctmcdqkxhmfsqh,snm`ko`ssdqmrbnmrhrshmfne
nmkxghfg`mcknvsnmdr-RhmbdlnrsmntmrhmA`lhkdjdk`mft`fdrcnmns
bnms`hmsgqddrxkk`akdr+gdv`rkdcsnonrhssgddwhrsdmbdne!ekn`shmf
snmdr!'snmdrtm`ss`bgdcsnrxkk`akdr(+`skd`rsnmsgdcddodrskdudkne
ognmnknfhb`kqdoqdrdms`shnm-Gdsgdmvdmsnmsnvnqjntsrnldnesgd
snm`kqtkdrmdbdrr`qxsnqd`bgu`qhntrrtqe`bdognmdshbqd`khy`shnmr-
Unnqgndud&rohnmddqhmfvnqjhmsghr`qd`v`renkknvdcaxGxl`m&r
ognmnknfhb`kdw`lhm`shnmnesgdEdùedùk`mft`fd'0861(-Hmsghrlnqd
vhcd,q`mfhmfvnqj+Gxl`mmnsnmkxonrhsdcsnm`ko`ssdqmr+ekn`shmfsnmdr
`mcsnm`kqtkdrrhlhk`qsnUnnqgndud&r+atsgd`ssdlosdcsndwo`mcsgdhq
`ookhb`shnmeqnlrnkdkxmntmogq`rdbnmsdwsrsnhmbktcdu`qhntrbg`mfdr
12
hmsgdudqaogq`rd-Hmsghrqdrodbs+gdr`xr9!Sgdlnqdcheehbtksoqnakdlr
bdmsdq`qntmcsnmd`ksdqm`shnmrhmudqar'08619040(-!
Sgdmhm0863+S`c`cidtdw`lhmdcsgdCrbg`mfk`mft`fd`mcentmc
sgdq`qdsnm`kogdmnldm`necnvmrsdovhsgnts`tsnl`shbcnvmcqhes`mc
cnvmrsdoodcknvsnmdrhm`cchshnmsnsgdlnqdbnllnmcnvmrsdoodc
ghfgsnmdr-RhmbdsgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fdhrchqdbskx`ci`bdmssnsg`sne
Crbg`mf+hshrmnsrtqoqhrhmfsg`sMfxdla——m`krnrg`qdrsgdrdr`ld
bg`q`bsdqhrshbr-
Sghrvnqjv`renkknvdcax`lnqdbnloqdgdmrhud`m`kxrhrne
tmcdqkxhmfsnm`ko`ssdqmrhmsgddmshqdLa`l,Mj`lk`mft`fde`lhkx+vhsg
rodbh`kdlog`rhrnmCrbg`mfsnmnknfx-Gxl`m`mcS`c`cidt'gdqd`esdq
qdedqqdcsn`r!G%S!(bnlahmdcnmsghroqnidbs`mcsgdhqqdonqs'0865(
l`m`fdcsnfndudmetqsgdqhmsnsgdudqa`ksnmdcdqhu`shnmr-Mdudqsgdkdrr+
sgdxbnmbktcdaxrs`shmf+!Mddckdrrsnr`x+ltbglnqdvnqjhrmddcdchm
sghrbnlokdwo`qsnesgdsnm`kfq`ll`qrn`rsnodqlhstrsnqdbnmrsqtbs
vhsgbdqs`hmsxsgdsdmrd+`rodbs+`mclnncl`qjdqroqdrdmshmOqnsn,
La`l,Mj`l'086590/5(-!Hsv`rhmqdronmrdsnsghrrs`sdcmddcsnoqdrr
nmeqnlsgdvnqjnmmntmogq`rdsnm`kodqstqa`shnmrsnhmbktcd`rvdkk
sgnrdnesgdudqaogq`rdsg`ssgdoqdrdmsrstcxv`rehqrstmcdqs`jdm-
@esdqsgdqdrd`qbgenqsgdoqdrdmsrstcxg`c`kqd`cxadftm+`m`qshbkd
v`rotakhrgdcax@mcdqrnm'0870(vghbgqd`m`kxydcsgdCrbg`mfc`s`
eqnlsgd`tsnrdfldms`kodqrodbshudneFnkcrlhsg'0865(-Sghr`qshbkd
13
rddlrsng`udaqntfgssgdtmtrt`kCrbg`mfc`s`snsgd`ssdmshnmnesgnrd
vnqjhmfnmsgdetqsgdqqdehmdldmsne`tsnrdfldms`kognmnknfx-Sgdl`hm
khmfthrsrhmunkudchmsgddmrthmfch`knftdg`udaddmRsdv`qs'0870(+
Otkkxak`mj'0871(`mcGxl`m'0871`(-Sgdrdrstchdrg`udaddmlnrs
hmsdqdrsdchmbnmrsqtbshmf`sgdnqxvghbghronvdqetkdmntfgsng`mckd
tmtrt`ksnm`kodqstqa`shnmrkhjdsgnrdneCrbg`mfvghkdmnsadhmfrn
onvdqetk`rsnoqnuhcdltkshokdrnktshnmrsnsgdr`ldc`s`-
Hm`mtmotakhrgdco`odq+Otkkxak`mj'0871900(onrhsdcsgddwhrsdmbdne
`snm`klds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbgrhlokhehdcsgdsnm`kqtkdrmddcdc+`mc`
rhlhk`qqtkdg`raddm`cnosdchmsghrrstcx`rvdkk-Rsdv`qs'08709007(
`bst`kkxenql`khydcsgdcnvmrsdoogdmnldm``r`ed`stqdvghbggdsgdm
lds`sgdrhydc-Ehm`kkx+Gxl`m'0871`97(`cnosdcOtkkxak`mj&rlds`sgdrhr
qtkd`mcsgdm`qftdcenqsgd`cnoshnmne`rnldvg`slnchehdcudqrhnmne
Kdadm&r'0867(Nakhf`snqxBnmsntqOqhmbhokd'NBO(-Sgdqdrtksrne`kk
sgdrdo`odqrg`udkdcsnu`qhntrqdehmdldmsrhmntq`m`kxrhrvghbghmstqm
g`udqdrtksdchm`rhlokdq`m`kxrhr`bbnlo`mhdcaxsnmdqtkdrcdunhcne
rsqhbsdwsdqm`knqcdqhmf-Ntqrnktshnmhrneedqdchmsghrchrrdqs`shnm`rxds
`mnsgdqbnmsqhatshnmsnsgdnmfnhmfch`knftdqdf`qchmf`tsnrdfldms`k
snmdsgdnqx`mcA`lhkdjdsnm`krxrsdlr-
14
1-1-Mntmr
Sgd`hlnesghrrdbshnmhrsnoqdrdms`mdv`m`kxrhrnesgdsnmd
odqstqa`shnmrentmchmsgdMfxdla——mmntmogq`rd-Snc`sd+lnrsnesgd
bnloqdgdmrhud`m`kxrdrneA`lhkdjdsnmdrxrsdlr'Gxl`m+0861:G%S+
0865:`mc@mcdqrnm+0870(g`ud`kkonrhsdctmcdqkxhmfsqh,snm`ko`ssdqmr
enqmntmr-Sgdrdsqh,snm`ko`ssdqmrvdqdonrhsdc`r`qdekdwned`qkhdq
A`mstrsqtbstqdrvgdqdlnrsmntmrbnms`hmdcsgqddrxkk`akdrvhsgdhsgdq
ghfgnqknvsnmdr-Gnvdudq+rhmbdlnrsmntmrhmoqdrdms,c`xA`lhkdjd
k`mft`fdrbnms`hmnmkx`lnmn,rxkk`ahbmntmqnnsoqdbdcdcax`lnmn,
rxkk`ahbmntmbk`rroqdehw+u`qhntrbnmudmshnmr`mcqtkdrg`csnad
cdudknodcsn`bbntmsenqsgdchro`qhsxadsvddmsgdmtladqnetmcdqkxhmf
snmdr`mcsgdmtladqnertqe`bdsnmdr+`rvdkk`rsndwok`hmsgdbnlokdw
snm`kodqstqa`shnmrb`trdcaxsgdghrsnqhb`kknrrnerxkk`akdr-G%S
`bbnlokhrgdcsghrotqonrdaxqdedqqhmfsnu`qhntr!ekn`shmfsnmdr!'snmdr
tm`ss`bgdcsnrdfldms`kunvdkr+ehqrsonrhsdcenqA`lhkdjdk`mft`fdrax
Unnqgndud+0854(-@mcdqrnm'0870(qdvnqjdcsgdhqc`s`trhmfsgdlnqd
dwokhbhs`tsnrdfldms`kognmnknfhb`klncdkneFnkcrlhsg'0865(+vghkd
mdudqsgdkdrrqds`hmhmfG%S&rtmcdqkxhmfsqh,snm`ko`ssdqmr-
15
2.2.1. In isolation
Oqduhntr`ssdlosrax@mcdqrnm'0865`mc0867(sndwok`hm
Mfxdla——msnm`kodqstqa`shnmr`krnenkknvdcrhlhk`qkhmdr`mconrhsdc
tmcdqkxhmfsqh,snm`ko`ssdqmrbnmrhrshmfnenmkxghfg'G(`mcknv'K(
snmdr-Sgdenkknvhmfbg`qsbnlo`qdrsgdo`ssdqmroqduhntrkxoqnonrdcenq
Crbg`mf'S`c`cidt+08639174`mcG%S+0865955(`mcMfxdla——m
'@mcdqrnm+086797(+vhsgsgdlnqogdldantmc`qhdrdwokhbhsdkxl`qjdcax
!*!(9
(12)
Disyllabic Nouns
Underlying
Dschang
NgyembDDn
L+LL
3+34
3+34
L+LH
3+3
3+3
L+HL
3+2
3+2
L+HH
3+1
3+31
Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsrgnvrsg`ssgdtmcdqkxhmfknvsnmd'K(`ssgd
adfhmmhmfnesgdsnm`ko`ssdqmqdrtksrhm`rtqe`bdknvsnmd'2(nmsgdmntm
bk`rroqdehw-Sghrkd`udrsgdk`rssvntmcdqkxhmfsnmdrned`bgo`ssdqmsn
hmsdq`bsvhsgsgdhqdmuhqnmldmsrhmrtbg`v`xsg`ssgdxqdrtkshmsgd
u`qhntrrtqe`bdsnmdrnesgdmntmqnnsr-Sgdnmkxsnm`kcheedqdmbdadsvddm
Mfxdla——m`mcCrbg`mfmnlhm`krhrsg`ssgdsnm`ko`ssdqmxhdkchmf`
16
ghfgsnmdnmsgdqnnshmCrbg`mfxhdkcr`qhrhmfsnmdhmMfxdla——m-Hm
e`bs+sghrr`ldo`ssdqm`krnqdrtksrhm`qhrhmfsnmdnmsgdmntmqnnshm
bdqs`hm`qd`rnesgdA`entbghdecnlneCrbg`mf'rddG%S+0865980+
ennsmnsd14(-Sgdqdftk`qnbbtqqdmbdneqhrhmfsnmdrhmMfxdla——mvhkk
nbb`rhnm`mdwsq`snmdqtkdsg`shrmnsmddcdcenqlnrsneCrbg`mf+`rvd
rg`kkrddhmsgdbntqrdnesgdenkknvhmfchrbtrrhnm-
Sgdoqduhntr`m`kxrdrneA`lhkdjdsnmdrxrsdlrg`udl`cdfqd`s
oqnfqdrrhmqdmcdqhmfdwok`hm`akdoqduhntrkxtmdwok`hm`akdsnm`k
odqstqa`shnmr-Hmsqxhmfsn`bbntmsenqsgdr`ldc`s`vhsg`lnqd
dbnmnlhb`ktrdnesnmdr`mcqtkdr+vdg`udentmchsgdkoetksnenkknv
Rsdv`qs'08709004(hm`kknvhmfsvnsnmdrhm`mxnmdlnqogdldnmkxhe
sgnrdsvnsnmdr`qdchrrhlhk`q-Vdsgtroqnonrdsgdenkknvhmftmcdqkxhmf
snmdo`ssdqmrenqMfxdla——mchrxkk`ahbmntmr+d`bgvhsg`sxohb`k
dw`lokdcq`vmeqnlmntmbk`rr4vgnrdoqdehwhr.kd∆,.9
(13)
Disyllabic Nouns
Underlying
Surface
Example
L+L
3+34
leLka
T B
"magic"
L+LH
3+3
leLlaLB
"pineapple"
L+HL
3+2
leLkKaB
"kind of tree"
L+H
3+31
leLkyeN
"lye"
17
Sgdehqrssnm`ko`ssdqmsg`svdvhkkdw`lhmdhrvgdqd`mtmcdqkxhmf
K*Ksnmdo`ssdqmqdrtksrhm`2*23rtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmvgdmhshr
oqnmntmbdchmhrnk`shnm-@mdw`lokdnertbg`vnqchrfhudmadknv
'vgdqd.ld∆,.hrsgdmntmbk`rroqdehwnebk`rr5mntmr(9
(14)
meLlu
T Y
"wine"
3 34
Hmnqcdqsncdqhudntqu`qhntrrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmr+vdvhkkad
enkknvhmfsgdfdmdq`kbnmudmshnmne`tsnrdfldms`kognmnknfxaxonrhshmf
sgddwhrsdmbdneu`qhntr!shdqr-!Sgdrdshdqr`qdl`cdtonetmhsrvghbg
`qdkhmjdcsntmhsrnmnsgdqshdqraxld`mrne`rrnbh`shnmkhmdr-Sgdrd
`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrl`xadcq`vmhm`bbnqc`mbdvhsgonrhsdctmhudqr`k
oqhmbhokdrnqrhlokx`rsgdqdrtksnek`mft`fd,rodbhehbqtkdr-Sgdsvnshdqr
sg`svdrg`kkadbnmbdqmdcvhsghmsghrchrrdqs`shnm`qdsgdrdfldms`k`mc
snm`k-Snrhlokhexntqcdrbqhoshnm+vdrg`kkqdoqdrdmssgdrxkk`ahbtmhsrnm
sgdrdfldms`kshdqaxld`mrnesgdb`ohs`kkdssdqr'@+A+dsb-(-Sgdsnm`k
shdq+nmsgdnsgdqg`mc+vhkkbnms`hmnmkxsgdrxlankrG`mcK
qdoqdrdmshmfsgdtmcdqkxhmfghfg`mcknvsnmdr-
@rhmlnrsk`mft`fdr+`fdmdq`kl`oohmfqtkd`rrnbh`sdrd`bgrxkk`akd
vhsgnmdsnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq+oqnbddchmfeqnlkdessnqhfgs-Sgtr+vhsg
18
!..!rxlankhyhmfo`trd,fqntoantmc`qhdr`mc!*!enqlnqogdld
antmc`qhdr+ntqtmcdqkxhmfo`ssdqmneK*Kvntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdq
sgdhmhsh`k`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrg`udaddmcq`vm9
(15)
//
A
+
B
//
//
L
+
L
//
Vghkdsgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqm`ood`qrsnadudqxrsq`hfgsenqv`qc+hs
ltrsadqdldladqdcsg`ssgdtkshl`sdrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhr2*23`mcmns
2*2-@rmnsdcaxUnnqgndud'0860936(+tmcdqkxhmfKsnmdrsg`s`qd
`arnktsdkxtssdq`mbd,ehm`k'h-d-mnsenkknvdcax`ekn`shmfGsnmd+`rrddm
etqsgdqadknv(+`kv`xrg`ud`cnvmfkhcd-VdvhkkenkknvRsdv`qs
'08709005(hmhmsdqoqdshmfsghrcnvmfkhcd`radhmf`cnvmrsdo-Ntqehm`k
cnvmfkhcdvhkkadfdmdq`sdcaxsgdenkknvhmfsnm`kqtkd9
(16) Rule 1:
Final Downglide
#
L Ø Ø
/
//
H L
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdrs`sdrsg`svgdmdudq`Ksnmdhr`rrnbh`sdc
19
'rxlankhydcax`rnkhckhmd(vhsg`rxkk`akd'rxlankhydcax!#!(
hlldch`sdkxadenqd`o`trd'rxlankhydcax!..!(+`m`cchshnm`kG`mcK
snmd`qd`ccdc`esdqsgd`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd`mcsgdmdvKsnmdhr
`rrnbh`sdcaxsgdqtkd'rxlankhydcaxsgdc`rgdckhmd(vhsgsgdr`ld
rxkk`akd-Vgdmvd`ookxsghrqtkdsnntqoqdbdchmfmntmrsqtbstqd+vdfds
sgdenkknvhmf9
(17)
//
A
+
B
//
//
L
+
L Ø Ø //
H L
Mnvsg`svdg`ud`ekn`shmfGsnmdoqdbdchmf`m`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd+
vdmddc`cnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgvhkkknvdqsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdq-Enqsgd
qdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfo`qsnentqqtkd+vdenkknvBkdldmsr'0868944/(hm
`cchmfnmdohsbgkdudksnd`bgrtbbddchmfrxkk`akd+rhmbdhmntqmtladqhmf
rxrsdl`ghfgdqmtladqhmchb`sdr`knvdqohsbg-Sgdehqrso`qsnentqqtkd
hrcheedqdmseqnloqduhntrkxonrhsdccnvmrsdoqtkdr`mclnqdfdmdq`ksg`m
vdmddcenqntqoqdrdmso`ssdqmhmsg`shsknvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdq
vgdmdudq`m`rrnbh`sdcsnmdhrhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdcax`ekn`shmfsnmdne
dw`bsnoonrhsdbg`q`bsdq'h-d-Gur-K`rhmchb`sdcax!√!`mc!,√!(+`rhm
sgdenkknvhmfoqdkhlhm`qxudqrhnmnentqcnvmrsdoqtkd'rdd'150(adknv
enq`qduhrdcqtkd(9
20
(18) Rule 2:
Downstep
#
+1 pitch
-[T
[T
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdrs`sdrsg`s`mxrxkk`akdvgdqd`m`rrnbh`sdcsnmd
'√S(hrhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdcax`mnoonrhsdekn`shmfsnmd',√S(+sgd
dmshqdsnmdqdfhrsdqrg`kkadknvdqdcnmdsnmdkdudk'hmchb`sdcax`m
hmbqd`rdnesgdmtldqhb`ku`ktdned`bgenkknvhmfrxkk`akdaxnmd(-Sghr
knvdqhmfnesgdsnmdqdfhrsdqg`rsvnbqtbh`koqnodqshdr-Ehqrs+sgd
knvdqhmfcndrmnsitrss`jdok`bdenqsgdrxkk`akdenkknvhmfsgdekn`shmf
snmd+atshrrhlhk`qkxknvdqdcenqallrxkk`akdrtmshk`l`inqo`trd
antmc`qx`kknvrsgdrod`jdqsnqdrdsghrsnm`kqdfhrsdq-Rdbnmc+sghr
knvdqhmfnesgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqb`mnbbtqrdudq`kshldrhm`mxnmdtssdq`mbd
`mcsgddeedbshrcumulative-Sgtr`ghfgsnmd`ssgddmcne`rdmsdmbd
b`md`rhkxadoqnmntmbdcnm`ognmdshbsnmdkdudkknvdqsg`m`knvsnmd
`ssgdadfhmmhmfne`rdmsdmbd+`mc`knvsnmd`ssgddmcne`rdmsdmbd
vhsgrdudq`kcnvmrsdorlhfgs`bst`kkxqd`bg`ognmdshbkdudkne7nq8-
@kknesghrhrb`trdchmMfxdla——maxsgdoqdrdmbdne`ekn`shmfsnmd
hlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf`m`rrnbh`sdcsnmdsg`shrmnshcdmshb`k-Sgtr`
ekn`shmfKadenqd`m`rrnbh`sdcG`kv`xrqdrtksrhm`cnvmrsdoodcG+`mc
21
`ekn`shmfGadenqd`m`rrnbh`sdcK`kv`xrqdrtksrhm`cnvmrsdoodcK-
Sghr`m`kxrhrnecnvmrsdoodcghfgr`mcknvrrg`qdrsgd`cu`ms`fdrne
ansgrxlldsqx`mcrhlokhbhsxnudqnsgdqrtffdrshnmr`rsnsgdhqnqhfhmr-
Sgdcnvmrsdoqtkd`ookhdrudqxk`sdhmsgdcdqhu`shnm`koqnbdrr-Hsr
deedbsrnmsgdohsbgqdfhrsdq`qdrgnvmhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnmax
sgdbg`mfdeqnlohsbgkdudk2snohsbgkdudk3nmsgdk`rsrxkk`akd9
(19)
//
A
+
B
//
L
+
L H L //
3 -
3
//
4
Sgdrdbnmcsnm`ko`ssdqmsg`svdvhkkdw`lhmdhrvgdqd`mtmcdqkxhmf
K*KGsnmdo`ssdqmqdrtksrhm`kdudk'h-d-mnm,cnvmfkhcdc(2*2rtqe`bd
qd`khy`shnmvgdmhshroqnmntmbdchmhrnk`shnm-@mdw`lokdnertbg`vnqc
eqnlmntmbk`rr6'vghbgs`jdr`mnoshnm`k.`∆,.oqdehw(hr`radknv9
(20)
aLffoL
3
"leaf"
3
Sgdcntakd!e!`anudhrsgdnqsgnfq`oghbbnmudmshnmtrdcsnhmchb`sd`
knmfbnmrnm`mshmMfxdla——m'@mcdqrnm0871953(-Rhmbdsgddw`lokdhm
enbtrg`rnmkxsvnrxkk`akdratssgqddtmcdqkxhmfsnmdr+sgdfdmdq`k
l`oohmfqtkdkd`udrsgdGsnmdtm`rrnbh`sdc+`radknv9
22
(21)
//
A
+
B
//
L
+
L
3
-
3
H
//
//
Sgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqmfhudrtrsgdrsq`hfgsenqv`qccdqhu`shnmnentq
rtqe`bd2*2qdrtks-Sgdetmbshnmnesgdehm`kekn`shmfGsnmdhrsg`shs
aknbjrsgdnodq`shnmnentqehm`kcnvmfkhchmfqtkd'snmdqtkd0cdrbqhadc
`anud(+vghbgnmkx`ookhdrhesgdk`rs`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdhrimmediately
enkknvdcaxo`trd-
Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdntqsghqcsnm`ko`ssdqmvgdqd`mtmcdqkxhmf
K*GKo`ssdqmqdrtksrhm`2*1rtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm'`knvsnmdnmsgd
mntmbk`rroqdehwenkknvdcax`cnvmrsdoodcghfgsnmdnmsgdmntmqnns(
vgdmhshroqnmntmbdchmhrnk`shnm-@mdw`lokdnertbg`vnqceqnlmntm
bk`rr3'vghbgs`jdr`.ld∆m,.oqdehw(hr`radknv9
(22)
meLnkKaY
3
"fields"
2
Nmbd`f`hmvdg`ud`o`ssdqmvhsgnmkxsvnrxkk`adrxdssgqdd
tmcdqkxhmfsnmdr-Hmsghrb`rd+sgdehm`kKsnmdhrkdestm`rrnbh`sdcaxntq
fdmdq`kkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkd+`radknv9
23
(23)
//
A
+
//
L
+
B
H
L
//
//
Hshr`ssghronhmssg`snmdnentqlnrshlonqs`msqtkdrbnldrhmsnok`x-
Sgdhcd`ne`lds`sgdrhrqtkdhmsghrrhst`shnmv`rehqrsrtffdrsdcax
Rsdv`qsenqsgdmdhfganqhmfk`mf`ftdneCrbg`mf-Ghr!Mnm,`rrhlhk`snqx
to,cnvmrhlokhehb`shnm!qtkd`bst`kkxlds`sgdrhydc`Gsnmd`mc`
cnvmrsdoed`stqd'08709005(-Ntqqtkdenkknvrsgdk`sdqenqltk`shnmrne
Otkkxak`mj'0871900(`mcGxl`m'0871`97(vghbgrhlokxlds`sgdrhydr`m
`rrnbh`sdcG`mc`mtm`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd-Ntqqtkdhrfhudm`oqdkhlhm`qx
enl`khy`shnmhlldch`sdkxadknv+atsvhkkadetqsgdqqduhrdck`sdqhmsghr
chrrdqs`shnm'rdd'51(adknv(9
(24) Rule 3:
Metathesis
#
#
L
H
L
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdrs`sdrsg`svgdmdudq`rxkk`akd'#(hr`rrnbh`sdcsn
`Gsnmdvghbghrhlldch`sdkxenkknvdcax`ekn`shmfKsnmd`mc`krn
hlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdcax`mnsgdqrxkk`akdvghbghr`rrnbh`sdcsn`Ksnmd+
sgdekn`shmfKsnmdhrlnudchmeqnmsnesgdGsnmd-Ax`ookxhmfsgd
lds`sgdrhrqtkd+ntqo`ssdqmhrbnmudqsdchmsnsgdenkknvhmf9
24
(25)
//
A
+
B
//
L
+
H
//
L
//
Ntqcnvmrsdoqtkdmnvbnldr`knmf`mcrddr`ekn`shmfKsnmd
hlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf`m`rrnbh`sdcGsnmd-Sghrsqhffdqrsgdnodq`shnm
necnvmrsdovghbgknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg-Sgdqdrtkshrsgd
enkknvhmfo`ssdqmvgdqdsgdohsbgkdudkne1rgnvrsg`ssgdGsnmdg`r
tmcdqfnmdnmd`ookhb`shnmneqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmf9
(26)
//
A
+
B
//
..K*KG..
2,1
Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdntqentqsg`mcehm`ksnm`ko`ssdqm-Hmsghrb`rd+`m
tmcdqkxhmfK*Go`ssdqmqdrtksrhm`2*20rtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm'`knvsnmd
nmsgdmntmbk`rroqdehwenkknvdcax`qhrhmfsnmdnmsgdmntmqnns(vgdm
hshroqnmntmbdchmhrnk`shnm-@mdw`lokdnertbg`vnqceqnlmntmbk`rr
8'vghbgs`jdr`snmd,ad`qhmfrxkk`ahbm`r`koqdehw.m∆,.`rhsrmntmbk`rr
oqdehw(hr`radknv9
(27)
nLzsoN
3
"cloth"
31
25
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokd`ood`qr`radknv`esdqntqfdmdq`kl`oohmf
qtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(28)
//
A
+
B
//
//
L
+
H
//
Sgdoqdbdchmfqdoqdrdms`shnmvntkcadrteehbhdms`rhsrs`mcrhmsgd
mdhfganqhmfk`mft`fdneCrbg`mf+vgdqdsghro`ssdqmtrt`kkxqdrtksrhm`
2*0nmsgdrtqe`bd-RhmbdMfxdla——mg`r`qhrhmfsnmdvgdqdCrbg`mf
trt`kkxg`r`Gsnmd+vdmddc`m`cchshnm`kqtkd+`radknv9
(29) Rule 4:
Rise-Formation
#
#
#
L
H
#
Sgdcnssdckhmdhmsgdoqdbdchmfqtkdhrsgd`tsnrdfldms`kbnmudmshnm
enq`cchmf`m`rrnbh`shnmkhmd-Sgtrsgdqtkdr`xrsg`svgdmdudq`rhmfkd
Gsnmdhr`rrnbh`sdcvhsg`rxkk`akdenkknvhmf`mnsgdqrxkk`akdvghbghr
`rrnbh`sdcsn`Ksnmd+`mcansgsnmdrnbbtqvhsghmsgdr`ldvnqc
'rxlankhydcaxsgdsvn"vnqcantmc`qhdr(+`m`cchshnm`k`rrnbh`shnmkhmd
vhkkadcq`vmsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfKsnmd-Hsrgntkcadrsqdrrdc
26
sg`ssghrqtkdhrkhlhsdcsndmuhqnmldmsrvgdqdsgdsvnsnmdr`qdentmc
vhsghm`rhmfkdvnqc-Sghrkhlhs`shnmvhkkoqnudrhfmhehb`ms`rvddw`lhmd
`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rdr`mcu`qhntrudqa`kogq`rdretqsgdqadknv-Sgd
qdrtksnesghrqtkd&r`ookhb`shnmnmntqoqdrdmstmcdqkxhmfo`ssdqmhrsgd
bnqqdbs2*20rtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm+`radknv9
(30)
//
A
+
B
//
L
+
H
3
- 31
//
//
Enqsgdqd`cdqmnse`lhkh`qvhsgsgdbnlokhb`sdcsnm`kodqstqa`shnmrne
A`lhkdjdk`mft`fdr+onqshnmrnentq`m`kxrhrsnsghronhmslhfgsrddl
rnldvg`s`cgnb-Hsvhkknmkxad`esdq`sgnqntfgdw`lhm`shnmnesgd
bnlokdwsnm`kodqstqa`shnmrhmsgd`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rdsg`ssgd
bnlokdsdlnshu`shnmnentqo`qshbtk`qtmcdqkxhmfo`ssdqmr`mcqtkdrvhkk
adbnldbkd`q-
27
2.2.2. In associative noun phrases (N1 of N2)
Mnvsg`svdg`uddw`lhmdcntqentqa`rhbchrxkk`ahbmntmo`ssdqmrhm
hrnk`shnm+vd`qdhm`onrhshnmsnbnlahmdsgdlhmmntm,mntm`rrnbh`shud
'nqfdmhshud(bnmrsqtbshnmr-Hshrhmsghrdmuhqnmldmssg`srdudq`knesgd
lnrshmsdqdrshmfsnm`kodqstqa`shnmrnbbtq-Vgdmdudqsvnmntmrbnld
snfdsgdqhm`m`rrnbh`shudbnmrsqtbshnmhmFq`rrehdkcrA`mst`rvdkk`rhm
M`qqnvA`mstk`mft`fdr+`mhmsdqudmhmf!`rrnbh`shudl`qjdq!'@(+
cdsdqlhmdcaxsgdmntmbk`rrnesgdehqrsmntm+nbbtqradsvddmsgdmntmr-
LnrsFq`rrehdkcA`mstk`mft`fdrcheedqeqnlsgdhqM`qqnvA`mst
bntmsdqo`qsrhmsg`ssgdrdfldms`kbnmsdmsnesgdrd`rrnbh`shudl`qjdqr
g`rbnlokdsdkxcqnoodcntskd`uhmf`m`rrnbh`shudlnqogdldbnmrhrshmf
neitrs`snmd-HmMfxdla——m+`rhmlnrsA`mstk`mft`fdr'ansg
Fq`rrehdkcr`mcM`qqnv(+sgdsnm`kbnmbnqcl`qjdqhrKsnmdenqmntm
bk`rrdr0`mc8`mcGsnmdenq`kksgdnsgdqbk`rrdr'rdd@mcdqrnm+087/`+
enq`chrbtrrhnmnesgdbnmrnm`ms+unvdk`mcsnm`kbnmbnqcl`qjdqrenq
d`bgnesgdsdmMfxdla——mmntmbk`rrdr(-
Rhmbdvdg`udentqsnm`konrrhahkhshdrenqsgdsvnchrxkk`ahbmntmr`mc
svnsnm`konrrhahkhshdrenqsgdsnm`klnqogdldrdo`q`shmfsgdl+vdsgtr
g`ud21rdo`q`sd`rrnbh`shudo`ssdqmrvgdmbnlahmhmfsgdsnm`ko`ssdqmr
entmchmsgdenkknvhmfbg`qs9
28
(31)
N1
A
N2
L+L
L
L+L
L+LH
H
L+LH
L+HL
L+HL
L+H
L+H
Sgd21onrrhakdbnlahm`shnmrnesgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqmrvdqdehqrs
cds`hkdcenqsgdCrbg`mfk`mft`fdaxG%S'0865981(-Sgdxvdqdsgdm
qd`m`kxydc`bbnqchmfsnu`qhntr`tsnrdfldms`keq`ldvnqjrax@mcdqrnm
'087097/(`mcRsdv`qs'08709007,015(-Sgdo`q`kkdko`ssdqmrenqsgd
Mfxdla——mk`mft`fd`qdrgnvmhmsgdenkknvhmfbg`qs9
29
'21(Bg`qs@
KnvSnmdBnmbnqcGhfgSnmdBnmbnqc
'bk`rrdr0`mc8('nsgdqbk`rrdr(
Hrnk`shnmMn-@ABCMn-@ABC
2,23%2,230-2222306-22134
2,21-222207-2213
2,12-222108-2211
2,203-222201/-2211
2,2%2,234-22333410-22134
2,25-2233311-2213
2,16-2233212-2211
2,207-22333113-2211
2,1%2,238-2333414-21134
2,20/-233315-2113
2,100-233216-2112
2,2001-2333117-2112
2,20%2,2302-2222318-220023
2,203-22222/-22002
2,104-222120-22001
2,2005-2222021-22001
30
Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qshrchuhcdchmsnsvnrdbshnmrcdodmchmftonm
vgdsgdqsgdhmsdqudmhmf`rrnbh`shudbnmbnqcsnmdhrGnqK-Sgd
`rrnbh`shudsnmdo`ssdqmrg`udaddmmtladqdceqnl0sn21sne`bhkhs`sd
k`sdqqdedqdmbdra`bjsnhmchuhct`ko`ssdqmr-Sgdmtladqr`ssgddwsqdld
kdes+ntsrhcdnesgdanwdr+hmchb`sdsgdhrnk`shnmsnmdrnesgdsvnmntmrhm
ptdrshnmvghkdsgdmtladqrhmrhcdsgdanwdrhmchb`sdsgdhqodqstqadc
rtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmr-Sgdb`ohs`kkdssdqr'@sgqntfgC(`ssgdsnoned`bg
bnktlmhmchb`sdsgdentqrxkk`akdrnesgdqdrtkshmf`rrnbh`shudtssdq`mbd-
@sxohb`kdw`lokdne`m`rrnbh`shudbnmrsqtbshnmvntkcado`ssdqm03-
Hmsgdenkknvhmfogq`rd+sgdoqdehwnesgdehqrsmntmhrsgdgnlnqf`mhb
rxkk`ahbm`r`koqdehwhmchb`sdcnqsgnfq`oghb`kkxgdqdaxsgdkdssdq!m-!
Rhmbdsgdehqrsmntmhreqnlmntmbk`rr8vghbgs`jdr`Ksnmd`rrnbh`shud
lnqogdld+sgdqdrtkshmf`rrnbh`shudogq`rdhr9
(33) nzem + A + lekwoB
L H
L
L
LH
nLzeLm leLkwoLB "shadow of a spear"
3 3
3
3
Rhmbdsgdehqrsmntm`anudg`r`qhrhmfsnmdhmhrnk`shnm+hsb`madrddm
sg`ssgdqhrdsnGsnmdg`rchr`ood`qdctmcdqsgdhmektdmbdnesgdonrhsdc
K`rrnbh`shudsnmd-@sxohb`kdw`lokdnesgdr`ldjhmcnesnm`khmotsvhsg
sgddwbdoshnmne`G`rrnbh`shudsnmdvntkcadsnm`ko`ssdqm2/-Hmnqcdq
snsqhffdqsgdG`rrnbh`shudsnmd+vdg`udrdkdbsdc`vnqceqnlmntmbk`rr
4vghbgs`jdransg`.kd∆,.oqdehw`mcGsnmdbnmbnqc'trdcenqsgd
31
`rrnbh`shudsnm`klnqogdld!@!(-@sxohb`kdw`lokdnesghrjhmcnemntm
ogq`rdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(34) letyo + A + lekwoB
L
H
H
L
LH
leLtyoN leJkwoLB "point of a spear"
3 31
1
3
B`qdetkdw`lhm`shnmnesgdsvnoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrvhkkrgnvsg`s
vgdqd`rsgdqhrhmfsnmdnmsgdehqrsmntmchr`ood`qrbnlokdsdkxtmcdqsgd
hmektdmbdneKsnmdbnmbnqc+hsmnsnmkxqdl`hmrvhsgGsnmdbnmbnqc+ats
hr`bbnlo`mhdcax`bg`mfdnesgdenkknvhmfoqdehweqnlhsrtmcdqkxhmfK
snmdsnsgdGsnmdnesgdonrhsdc`rrnbh`shudlnqogdld-
@r`m`cchshnm`kgdkosnsgdqd`cdq+vdqdod`ssgdoqdbdchmfbg`qs
adknvvghkdbg`mfhmfsgd!hrnk`shnmo`ssdqmr!eqnlsgdhqrtqe`bd
qd`khy`shnmrsnsgdhqtmcdqkxhmfo`ssdqmr-Sgdenkknvhmfbg`qsvhkksgtrad
`m`cchshnm`k`hcctqhmfntqdw`lhm`shnmnesgdu`qhntrsnm`kcdqhu`shnmr-
32
'24(Bg`qsA
KnvSnmdBnmbnqcGhfgSnmdBnmbnqc
'bk`rrdr0`mc8('nsgdqbk`rrdr(
Hrnk`shnmMn-@ABCMn-@ABC
K*K%K*K0-2222306-22134
K*KG1-222207-2213
K*GK2-222108-2211
K*G3-222201/-2211
K*KG%K*K4-22333410-22134
K*KG5-2233311-2213
K*GK6-2233212-2211
K*G7-22333113-2211
K*GK%K*K8-2333414-21134
K*KG0/-233315-2113
K*GK00-233216-2112
K*G01-2333117-2112
K*G%K*K02-2222318-220023
K*KG03-22222/-22002
K*GK04-222120-22001
K*G05-2222021-22001
33
Vdvhkkadfhmntqdw`lhm`shnmne`rrnbh`shudsnmdo`ssdqmrax
dw`lhmhmfhmcds`hko`ssdqmmn-0-Hmsgdenkknvhmf`tsnrdfldms`k
qdoqdrdms`shnmr+sgdu`qhntrantmc`qhdrvhkkadl`qjdc`renkknvr9
lnqogdldantmc`qhdr`r*+vnqcantmc`qhdr`r"+`mco`trdantmc`qhdr
`r..-@kknvhmfenqduhcdmbdeqnlmdhfganqhmfk`mft`fdrsg`ssgdsnm`k
`rrnbh`shudlnqogdldetmbshnmrfq`ll`shb`kkx`r`oqd,oqdehwnmsgd
rdbnmcmntm'Fhkkhf`m+087195(+sgdtmcdqkxhmfqdoqdrdms`shnmnesnmd
o`ssdqm0hr`radknv9
(36)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
L
//
Sgdehqrsqtkdsn`rrnbh`sdtmhsrnesgdrxkk`ahb`mcsnm`kshdqrhrsgdsnmd
l`oohmfqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrd`bgrxkk`akdvhsgsgdkdeslnrssnmd
vhsghmsgdr`ldlnqogdld-Sgdrsq`hfgsenqv`qcqdrtksrnesghrfdmdq`k
snmdqtkdnmntqbtqqdmsdw`lokd`qd`radknv9
(37)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
L
//
Vdmnvltrsonrhs`k`mft`fd,rodbhehbqtkdenqMfxdla——mvghbg
`rrnbh`sdrKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldrsnsgdkdes+`rhmsgdoqdkhlhm`qx
udqrhnmnentqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfqtkd'qduhrdchm'273(adknv(+`rrs`sdc
adknv9
34
(38) Rule 5:
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
#
+
+
T
+
L
+
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkd`rrnbh`sdrKsnmdr'mdv`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrrxlankhydc
axc`rgdckhmdr(sg`sl`jdto`mdmshqdlnqogdldsnsgdehqrsrxkk`akdnm
sgdhqkdes-Sgdqtkd`krncdkdsdr'cdkdshnmne`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrrxlankhydc
axsvnrl`kkrk`rgdrnmsgdkhmd(sgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdnesgdmdwssnmd
'rxlankhydcaxS(nmsgdkdes+hesg`ssnmdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdrsgdK
snmdsnm`klnqogdld-Hshrbqtbh`ksg`ssgdoqdbdchmfqtkdnmkx`ookhdr
vgdmsgdKsnmdnbbtqrhm`rxkk`akdvhsgnts`mxrdfldms`kl`sdqh`k-Hm
sgdb`rdnentqehqrssnm`ko`ssdqm+snmdqtkd3`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmd
`rrnbh`shudlnqogdldsnsgdkdes`mccdkdsdrsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdvghbg
v`rnmrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(39)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
L
//
Sgdnmkxnsgdqqtkdvghbg`ookhdrsnsghrsnmdo`ssdqmhrsnmdqtkd0+
vghbg`ccrsgdGKsnmdradenqdsgdo`trdantmc`qxfhuhmftrsgdehm`k
cnvmcqhessxohb`knetmcdqkxhmfK*Ko`ssdqmr-Sgddmcqdrtkshrsgd
2,2,2,23eqnlntqbg`qs+`radknv9
35
(40)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
L Ø Ø
//
H L
3
-
3
-
3
-
3
4
SgntfgsgdKdesv`qccnbjhmfK`rrnbh`shudsnmdcndrmnsl`jd`
rtars`mshudcheedqdmbdhmsghro`ssdqm+nqhmo`ssdqmr1sgqntfg3vghbgtmcdqfn
rhlhk`qcdqhu`shnmr+sg`sr`ldKsnmdhrbqtbh`khmo`ssdqmr4sgqntfg05+vgdqd
hsroqdrdmbdsqhffdqrsgd`ooqnoqh`sdsnmdbg`mfdr-
Vdb`mmnvdw`lhmdsnmdo`ssdqmr4sgqntfg7-Snmdo`ssdqm5+vghbg
hrsxohb`knesghrfqnto+vhkk`ood`q`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgs
l`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(41)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
B
#
H #
L
+
C
+
D
+
L
+ L
//
H //
Mnvsnmdqtkd4cnbjrsgdK`rrnbh`shudsnmdsnsgdkdes'nmsnrxkk`akdA(+`r
adknv9
(42)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
B
#
H
#
L
+
C
+
+
L
+ L
D
//
H //
Hshrbqtbh`k`anudsg`svgdmsgdK`rrnbh`shudsnmdcnbjrnmsnrxkk`akdA+hs
cndrnotchr`rrnbh`sdsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsg`srxkk`akd-Sgd
36
qd`rnmenqsg`shrsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdekn`shmfGsnmdadsvddmsgdsvnKsnmdr
`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdr`ldrxkk`akd-Snmdqtkd4nmkxcdkdsdrsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmd
nmsgdrxkk`akdsnsgdkdeshesgdsnmd`rrnbh`sdchrhlldch`sdkx`ci`bdmssnsgd
kdesv`qccnbjhmfK-Sgtr+hmo`ssdqmr4sgqntfg7+sgdr`ldekn`shmfGsnmdsg`s
!oqnsdbsr!sgd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdnerxkk`akdAqdl`hmrekn`shmf`mchr
qdronmrhakdenqsgdcnvmrsdoodcm`stqdnesgdK`rrnbh`shudsnmd-Hshrsgtrsgd
ekn`shmfGsnmdnesgdrdo`ssdqmrsg`shrqdronmrhakdenqsgdsnmdfkhcdeqnlkdudk
2'qdftk`qKsnmd(snkdudk3'cnvmrsdoodcKsnmd(+`radknv9
(43)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
3
- 3
B
#
H #
+
C
+
L
+
L
+ L
4
-
4
- 4
D
//
H //
Vd`qdmnvhm`onrhshnmsndw`lhmdo`ssdqmr8sgqntfg01-Vdvhkkrdkdbs
snmdo`ssdqm00`rbg`q`bsdqhrshbnesghrfqnto+`mcrs`qshsrcdqhu`shnmvhsgsgd
kdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkdvghbgqdrtksrhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(44)
//
A
+
//
L
+ H
B
#
L #
L
+
C
+
+
L
+ H
D
//
L //
Hmenkknvhmfsgdcdqhu`shnmnesghro`ssdqm+vdltrsrs`sd`fdmdq`k
qdrsqhbshnmnmsgd`ookhb`shnmnesgdsnmdqtkdr-@ksgntfgsgdsnmdqtkdr`qd
enqsgdlnrso`qstmnqcdqdc'dwbdosenqsgdfdmdq`kl`oohmfqtkdvghbg
37
nauhntrkxltrsbnldehqrs`mcsgdknv,kdudkhmsdqoqdshudcnvmrsdoqtkd
vghbgltrsbnldk`rs(+sgdhqnqcdqhmfhm`mxo`qshbtk`qcdqhu`shnmhr
bnmsqnkkdcax`kdes,sn,qhfgsqdrsqhbshnmnmsgd`ookhb`shnmfor each
tone-Vdsgtroqnbddcnmsgdtonalshdqeqnlkdessnqhfgs`mc`rj
ntqrdkudrvgdsgdqd`bgsnmdhmstqmlddsrsgdqdpthqdldmsrenq`mxnesgd
snmdqtkdr-Oqnbddchmfhmsghrl`mmdqenqsgdo`ssdqmhmptdrshnm+sgdehqrs
qtkdsnnodq`sdhrsnmdqtkd2vghbglds`sgdrhydrsgdsnmdrnerxkk`akdA
vghkdjddohmfsgdGsnmd`rrnbh`sdc+`radknv9
(45)
//
A
+
//
L
+ H
B
#
L #
L
+
C
+
+
L
+ H
D
//
L //
Sgdmdwsqtkdsg`snodq`sdrhrsnmdqtkd4vghbgcnbjrsgd`rrnbh`shud
Ksnmdsnrxkk`akdAandcdkdsdrsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdadsvddmrxkk`akdA
`mcsgdGsnmdrhmbdsg`ssnmdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdrsgd`rrnbh`shudK
snmd`ssgdlnldmssg`ssnmdqtkd4nodq`sdr-Hshrsgtrbqtbh`ksg`ssnmd
qtkd2nodq`sdrnmrxkk`akdAadenqdsnmdqtkd4cnbjrsgd`rrnbh`shudK
snmdsgdqd-Hesgdrdsvnqtkdrg`cnodq`sdchmsgdnoonrhsdnqcdq+sgd
`rrnbh`shnmkhmdadsvddmrxkk`akdA`mcsgdGsnmdvntkcg`udvqnmfkx
addmkdeshms`bs-Sgdqdrtksnesnmdqtkd4hrsgdqdenqdsgdenkknvhmf9
38
(46)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
B
#
H #
L
+
C
+
D
+
L
+ H
//
L //
Sgdehm`kqtkdsnnodq`sdnmsghro`qshbtk`qo`ssdqmhrsnmdqtkd2+vghbgsghr
shldlds`sgdrhydrsgdsnmdrnerxkk`akdC+`radknv9
(47)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
B
#
H #
L
+
C
+
+
L +
D
H
//
L //
Vhsg`ekn`shmfGoqdbdchmfsgd`rrnbh`sdcKenqrxkk`akdA`mc`ekn`shmfK
oqdbdchmfsgd`rrnbh`sdcGnerxkk`akdC+sghro`ssdqmg`rsvnok`bdrvgdqdsgd
qdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd`ookhdr-Sgdbtltk`shudm`stqdnesgdrd
cnvmrsdorhrrgnvmhmsghro`qshbtk`qo`ssdqmaxsgdehm`kGsnmdadhmf
ognmdshb`kkxqd`khydcnmsgdr`ldohsbgkdudk'2(`rsgdhmhsh`kKsnmd'2(-Sgtr
sgdehm`kqdrtksnentqcdqhu`shnm9
(48)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
3
-
B
#
H #
+
C
+
D
//
L
+
L
+ L
H //
4
-
4
-
3
Vdmnvbnldsnsnmdo`ssdqmr02sgqntfg05vghbgoqdrdmstrvhsg`m
tmtrt`kogdmnldmnm-Vdr`v`anudsg`s`mtmcdqkxhmfK*Go`ssdqmhrqd`khydc
nmsgdrtqe`bd`r2,20vgdmhmhrnk`shnm-Hm`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rdrvgdqdsgd
39
ehqrsmntmg`r`K*Go`ssdqm`mcsgd`rrnbh`shudsnmdhrK+sgdGsnmdhrmnsitrs
lnchehdchmsn`qhrhmfsnmd`rhmhrnk`shnm+atssgdGsnmdhrknrsbnlokdsdkx-Hm
nqcdqsndw`lhmdsghrogdmnldmnm+vdvhkkenkknvsgdcdqhu`shnmnesnmdo`ssdqm
05+vghbg`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdnodq`shnmnesgdkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkd9
(49)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
H
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Sgdehqrsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsnmdqtkd3vghbgenqlr`qhrhmfsnmdnmrxkk`akd
A+`radknv9
(50)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
H
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Nmbdsghrqtkdg`rnodq`sdc+vdmddc`mdvqtkdvghbgcdkdsdrbnlokdsdkx
sgdGsnmdnerxkk`akdA-Rhmbdvdvhkketqsgdqqduhrdsghrqtkdhm'06/(adknv+
sgdoqdrdmsudqrhnmnesghrcdkdshnmqtkdhrnmkxoqdkhlhm`qx+`radknv9
(51) Rule 6:
Rise-Deletion
#
#
+
L
H
+
∂
40
+
L
+
SgdoqdbdchmfqtkdcdkdsdrsgdGsnmdne`qhrhmfsnmdnmkxhmsgddudmssg`s
hshrhlldch`sdkxenkknvdcax`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdld-Nmdqdrtksnesghrqtkd
hrsg`ssgdsnm`kbnmsq`rsadsvddmsnmdo`ssdqmr0sgqntfg3`mcsgdhqqdrodbshud
bntmsdqo`qsrhm01sgqntfg05hrmdtsq`khydc-Sghrqtkdnodq`sdrnmntqoqdrdms
o`ssdqmsnoqnctbdsgdenkknvhmf9
(52)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
H
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Ø
Sgdmdwsqtkdsg`snodq`sdrhrsnmdqtkd4vghbgcnbjrsgd`rrnbh`shudKsnmd
snrxkk`akdA-RhmbdsgdGsnmdg`raddmcdkdsdcaxsghrshld+sgd`rrnbh`shnm
khmdadsvddmrxkk`akdA`mcsgdehqrsKsnmdnentqo`ssdqmhr`krncdkdsdc+`r
adknv9
(53)
//
A
+
//
L
+
B
#
#
L
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Sgdehm`krsdonesghro`qshbtk`qo`ssdqmhrenqsnmdqtkd3snbnmrsqtbs`
qhrhmfsnmdnmrxkk`akdC-Sghrsdqlhm`sdrsgdcdqhu`shnm`mcqdrtksrhmsgd
bnqqdbsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmne2,2,2,20+`radknv9
41
(54)
//
A
+
//
L
+
3
-
B
#
#
+
C
+
D
//
L
+
L
+
H
//
3
-
3
- 31
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqdw`lhm`shnmnesgd05`rrnbh`shudmntmsnmd
o`ssdqmrvghbgbnms`hm`mhmsdqudmhmfK`rrnbh`shudsnmd-D`bgnesgd
o`ssdqmrmnschqdbskxdw`lhmdcenkknv`cdqhu`shnm`klnrshcdmshb`ksn
sgnrdcds`hkdc`anud-
Vdmnvlnudnmsnsnmdo`ssdqmr05sgqntfg21+vghbg`qd
bg`q`bsdqhydcax`G`rrnbh`shudsnmdnbbtqqhmfadsvddmsgdsvnmntmr-
VhsgsgdKsnmd`rrnbh`shudo`ssdqmrdw`lhmdc`anud+vdg`c
mdtsq`khy`shnmnebnmsq`rsadsvddmo`ssdqmrvgdqdsgdehqrsvnqcv`r2,23
hmhrnk`shnm`mcbnqqdronmchmfo`ssdqmrvgdqdsgdehqrsvnqcv`r2,20-
MnvvhsgGsnmdbnmbnqc+vdehmcdudmlnqdmdtsq`khy`shnmnebnmsq`rs-
VhsgGsnmdbnmbnqc+`mxo`ssdqmvgdqdsgdrdbnmcvnqcv`r2,1hm
hrnk`shnmmdtsq`khydrhsrsnm`kbnmsq`rsvhsgsgdbnqqdronmchmfo`ssdqm
vgdqdsgdrdbnmcvnqcv`r2,20-Lnqdnudq+sgdrdo`ssdqmrmdtsq`khydsnG
snmd`mcsncnvmrsdoodcGsnmdhmcheedqdmsdmuhqnmldmsr-Hm`cchshnm+
snmdo`ssdqmrvgdqdsgdehqrsvnqcv`r2,23hmhrnk`shnmmdtsq`khydsgdhq
bnmsq`rssghrshldvhsgsgdhqqdrodbshudbntmsdqo`qsrvgdqdsgdehqrsvnqc
42
v`r2,2-Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdhmcds`hksgddw`bsb`trdrnesgdrdcheedqdms
b`rdrnemdtsq`khy`shnm-
Ntqehqrsfqntonesnmdo`ssdqmrhr06sgqntfg1/vgdqdsgdehqrsvnqc
g`r`mtmcdqkxhmfK*Ko`ssdqm-Vdvhkkdw`lhmdo`ssdqm08nesghrfqnto
hmcds`hk`rg`uhmf`cdqhu`shnmsxohb`knesgdnsgdqr-Sghro`ssdqm`ood`qr
`radknv`esdqntqkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(55)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
H
+
C
+
+
L
+ H
D
//
L //
Hshrhlonqs`mssnmnsdsg`ssgd`anudo`ssdqmg`r`Gsnmd`rrnbh`shud
lnqogdldrdo`q`shmfsgdsvnmntmo`ssdqmr-SghrGsnmd`rrnbh`sdrsnsgd
righthmrsd`cnesnsgdkdes`rvhsgsgdK`rrnbh`shudsnmd-Vdltrs
sgdqdenqdrs`sdsgdoqdkhlhm`qxudqrhnmne`k`mft`fd,rodbhehbqtkd'qduhrdc
hm'212(adknv(vghbg`rrnbh`sdrGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldrsnsgdqhfgs+`r
adknv9
(56) Rule 7:
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
+
+
H
+
#
+
T
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkd`rrnbh`sdrGsnmdrsg`sl`jdto`mdmshqdlnqogdldsn
sgdehqrsrxkk`akdnmsgdhqqhfgs-Sgdqtkd`krncdkdsdrsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdnesgd
43
hlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfsnmdhesg`ssnmdhr`krn`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdr`ldrxkk`akd-Hs
hrbqtbh`ksg`ssgdoqdbdchmfqtkd`ookhdrnmkxvgdmsgdGsnmdnbbtqrhm`
rxkk`akdvhsgnts`mxrdfldms`kl`sdqh`k-Vgdmsnmdqtkd6`ookhdrsno`ssdqm08+
sgdqdrtkshrsgdenkknvhmf9
(57)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
H
+
C
+
D
+
L
+ H
//
L //
Rhmbdrxkk`akdBmnvg`r`m`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdenkknvdcax`ekn`shmfK
snmd+hslddsrsgdqdpthqdldmsrnentqlds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbglnudrsgdekn`shmf
Ksnmdnerxkk`akdBhmeqnmsnesgdG`rrnbh`shudsnmd+`radknv9
(58)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
L
#
H
+
C
+
D
+
L
+ H
//
L //
Hshrbqtbh`khmsgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnmsg`ssgdnodq`shnmnesgdsnmd
qtkd6nmrxkk`akdBakdcrxkk`akdCnesgdlds`sgdrhrqtkd-Rhmbdsgd
lds`sgdrhrqtkdqdpthqdrsg`ssgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdad`rrnbh`sdcvhsg`K
snmd+sgdcnbjhmfnesgdG`rrnbh`shudsnmd`mchsro`q`kkdkcdkdshnmne`m
`rrnbh`shnmkhmdbg`mfdcsgddmuhqnmldmsnerxkk`akdCqdrtkshmfhm`
ekn`shmfKsnmd`ssgddmcnesgdo`ssdqmvghbgg`rmnnardqu`akddeedbs
adenqdo`trd-Sgdekn`shmfKsnmdoqdbdchmfsgd`rrnbh`shudGsnmdhrsgtr
44
sgdnmkxsnmdvghbgsqhffdqrntqqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd+`r
adknv9
(59)
//
A
+
B
#
+
//
L
+
L
#
L H
3
-
3
-
2
C
+
+
D
+ H
//
L //
- 2
Ntqmdwsfqntonesnmdo`ssdqmrhr10sgqntfg13-Vdvhkkrdkdbso`ssdqm13
`radhmfbg`q`bsdqhrshbnesghrfqnto`mcenkknvhsrcdqhu`shnmrs`qshmfeqnl
hlldch`sdkx`esdq`ookhb`shnmnesgdkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkd+vghbgqdrtksrhm
sgdenkknvhmf9
(60)
//
A
+
B
//
L
+ L
#
H #
H
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Snmdqtkd6sgdmbnldr`knmf`mccnbjrsgd`rrnbh`shudGsnmdsnsgdqhfgs
`mc!ekn`sr!sgdKsnmdsg`sv`r`kqd`cx`ss`bgdcsnrxkk`akdB+`radknv9
'50(..@*A"*B*C..
//
L
+ L
H
#
H
+
L
+
H
//
Hsrgntkcadmnshbdcsg`ssgdnodq`shnmnesgdqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdg`rchr`rrnbh`sdcsgdKsnmdeqnlrxkk`akdB`mcsgdqdaxakdc
rxkk`akdCne`onsdmsh`k`ookhb`shnmnesgdqhrd,enql`shnmqtkd-
45
@ssghronhms+hshrbqtbh`ksg`sntqlds`sgdrhrqtkdnodq`sdrnmrxkk`akd
Bdudmsgntfgsgdqddwhrsr`ekn`shmfGsnmdadsvddmsgd`rrnbh`sdcK
snmdnerxkk`akdA`mcsgd`rrnbh`shudsnmd-Ntqenqldqqtkd'ehqrsrs`sdchm
'13(`anud(b`mad`kknvdcsnnodq`sdhmsgdoqdrdmscdqhu`shnmvhsg`
rkhfgsqduhrhnmhmsgdqtkd&renqltk`shnm+`radknv9
(62) Rule 3’:
Metathesis
#
#
L (H)
H
L
Sgdoqdbdchmfqduhrdclds`sgdrhrqtkd`kknvrenq`mnoshnm`kekn`shmf
Gsnmd'G(+vghbg`kknvrhssn`ookxsnntqoqdrdmso`ssdqmhmsgd
enkknvhmfl`mmdq9
(63)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
B
#
H #
H
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Nmbd`f`hm+vdnmkxg`ud`ekn`shmfKsnmdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgd
`rrnbh`shudGsnmd-Vdsgtrnmkxfdssgd`ookhb`shnmnentqqdfhrsdq,
knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkdnmrxkk`akdB+vghbgxhdkcrsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bd
qd`khy`shnm+`radknv9
46
(64)
//
A
+
B
#
+
//
L
+ L
H #
L H
3
- 3
-
2
C
+
+
D
//
+
H
//
-
2
Cdqhu`shnmrrhlhk`qsnsgdoqdbdchmfsvn`qdqdronmrhakdenqsgdsnm`k
mdtsq`khy`shnmduhcdmbdcaxo`ssdqmr08+1/+12`mc13-
Vd`qdmnvoqdo`qdcsng`mckdo`ssdqmr14sgqntfg17nevghbgvdvhkk
rdkdbso`ssdqm16`r`qdoqdrdms`shud-O`ssdqm16hrdrodbh`kkxhmsdqdrshmfhmsg`s
vdg`udsgqddtmcdqkxhmfG,Krdptdmbdrqdk`sdcsnsgqddrtbddchmfrxkk`akdr-
@esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc+ntqlds`sgdrhrqtkd`ookhdrsn
rxkk`akdA+qdrtkshmfhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(65)
//
A
+
//
L
+ H
B
#
L #
H
+
C
+
+
L
+ H
D
//
L //
Mdws+ntq`rrnbh`shudGsnmdcnbjrsnsgdqhfgs`mc`krnekn`srsgdKsnmd
`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(66)
//
A
+
//
L
+ L
B
#
H #
H
+
C
+
+
L
+ H
D
//
L //
Hshrbqtbh`k`ssghronhmssg`srxkk`akdBb`mmnstmcdqfnsgdlds`sgdrhrqtkd
adb`trdsgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdhr`rrnbh`sdcsn`Gsnmd-Rxkk`akdCcndrmns
47
tmcdqfnlds`sgdrhrenqsgdr`ldqd`rnm-Gnvdudq+sgdenqldqkx`rrnbh`sdcK
snmdnerxkk`akdBhrrshkkekn`shmfadenqdsgdGsnmdnerxkk`akdC+vghbgsqhffdqr
sgdrdbnmc`ookhb`shnmnentqqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd+`rrddmadknv9
(67)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+ L
H #
H
3
-
2 -
2
+
C
+
+
L
+ H
D
L
//
//
- 3
Nmbd`f`hm+vdrddsgd`bbtltk`shudm`stqdnesgdcnvmrsdonmsgdehm`kG
snmdvghbghrqd`khydcnmsgdr`ldognmdshbkdudk'2(`rsgdhmhsh`kKsnmd'2(-
Vd`qdmnvqd`cxsndw`lhmdsgdk`rsentqo`ssdqmr-Vdbgnnrdo`ssdqm21
`rbg`q`bsdqhrshbnesghrfqnto-@esdqntqkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc+
snmdqtkd3bqd`sdr`qhrhmfsnmdnmrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(68)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
H
#
H
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
@ssghronhms+hshrbqtbh`ksg`sntqqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkdcndrnot`ookx+adb`trd
sgdqhrdhrenkknvdcax`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhmrsd`cne`Ksnmdsnm`k
lnqogdld-Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sd+sgdqdenqd+`rrnbh`sdrsgdG`rrnbh`shudsnmd
snsgdqhfgs`mcekn`srsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsnrxkk`akdB+`radknv9
48
(69)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
H
#
H
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdKsnmdnerxkk`akdBsg`shrmnvekn`shmfhrmnslnudc
axntqlds`sgdrhrqtkdadb`trdsgdk`rs`rrnbh`sdcsnmdnesgdoqdbdchmf
rxkk`akd'A(hrmns`Ksnmd-Sghrekn`shmfKsnmdsg`shrmnseqnmsdchrnmbd
`f`hmqdronmrhakdenqsgdcnvmrsdoodcGsnmdnerxkk`akdC+`radknv9
(70)
//
A
+
B
#
//
L
+
H
#
H
3
- 31
-
1
+
C
+
D
//
+
L
+
H
//
-
2
Hmbnmbktchmfsghrrdbshnm+vdvhkkkhrssgdqtkdrchrbtrrdcrne`q`knmf
vhsg`khf`stqdnmsgdkdesbnmmdbshmfsgnrdqtkdrnqfqntorneqtkdrvgdqd
nqcdqhmfhrbqtbh`k-Ntqbtqqdmskhrsneqtkdr'qduhrdchm'305(adknv(hrsgd
enkknvhmf9
49
(71)
Rule Ordering
Left-to-Right Mapping Rule (universal)
Rule 1:
Final Downglide
Rule 3’: Metathesis
Rule 4:
Rise-Formation
Rule 5:
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
Rule 6:
Rise-Deletion
Rule 7:
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
Rule 2:
Downstep (late adjustment rule)
@rhmchb`sdcaxntqkhf`stqdr`anud+hshrmdbdrr`qxnmkxsg`sntq
fdmdq`k'tmhudqr`k(kdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkdoqdbdcd`kknsgdqsnmdqtkdr
`mcsg`sntqk`sd'tmhudqr`k(`citrsldmscnvmrsdoqtkdenkknv`kknsgdqr-
@kksgdnsgdqqtkdrsgtrenql`ancx+rg`qhmfsvnbg`q`bsdqhrshbr-Sgdrd
qtkdr`qdmnsrsqhbskxnqcdqdcvhsgqdrodbssnd`bgnsgdq-Sgdxcnrg`qdsgd
fdmdq`kqdrqhbshnmsg`ssgdqdrtkshmfcdqhu`shnmoqnbddcreqnlkdessnqhfgs+
tone by tone-Rhmbdsgdkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkd`mcsgdkdes,sn,qhfgs
qdrsqhbshnmnmqtkd`ookhb`shnm`mcsgdcnvmrsdoqtkdlhfgs`kkad
tmhudqr`koqhmbhokdr+bg`q`bsdqhrshbne`kksnmdrxrsdlr+sgdx`qdoqna`akx
adrsqdf`qcdc`ro`qsnetmhudqr`ksnmdsgdnqx`mcsgdqdaxmns`o`qshbtk`q
50
bg`q`bsdqhrshbnesgdMfxdla——msnmdrxrsdl-Sgdqdenqd+nmdnesgd
chrshmbshuded`stqdrnesghro`qshbtk`q`m`kxrhrhrsgdtmnqcdqdcm`stqdne
sgda`rhbsnmdqtkdr+`knmfvhsgsgdhqkdes,sn,qhfgslocal`ookhb`shnm-
51
2.3. Verbs
Sgdoqdrdmschrrdqs`shnmvhkkdw`lhmdsgdu`qhntrjhmcrnesdmrd+
`rodbs`mclncdchrshmbshnmrentmchmsgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fd-Vghkd
bnmbdmsq`shmfoqhl`qhkxtonmbnmrsqtbshnmrhmsgdhmchb`shudlnnc+vd
vhkkenbtrntq`ssdmshnmnmu`qhntrfq`ll`shb`ked`stqdr`mcsgdhqqnkdhm
cdsdqlhmhmfsgdl`mxcheedqdmssnm`ko`ssdqmrentmcnmsgdudqarsdl-Hm
m`lhmfntqudqa`ked`stqdr+vdenkknvGxl`m'087/9124(enqntqsdmrd
ed`stqdr`mcBnlqhd'0865914(enqntq`rodbst`ked`stqdr-Sgdenkknvhmf
dhfgsahm`qxed`stqdr`qdmddcdcsnfdmdq`sdsgda`rhbMfxdla——m
hmchb`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr9
(72)
Verbal Features
MODE: [real] (realis/irrealis)
TENSE: [past] (past/non-past)
[fut]
(future/non-future)
[rem]
(remote/non-remote)
[near] (near/far)
ASPECT: [perf] (perfective/imperfective)
[prog] (progressive/non-progressive)
POLARITY: [neg]
(negative/positive)
@rvntkcaddwodbsdcenq`mxk`mft`fdg`uhmfsghrmtladqnea`rhb
52
udqa`kchrshmbshnmr+mns`kknesgdlncd,sdmrd,`rodbs,onk`qhsxbnnbbtqqdmbd
onrrhahkhshdr`qd`bst`kkxqd`khydc-Rhmbd`mxhmchb`shudbnmrsqtbshnmhm
Mfxdla——mg`ransgonrhshud`mcmdf`shudqd`khy`shnmr+vdvhkkhfmnqdenq
sgdlnldmssgdptdrshnmneonk`qhsx-Nmbdsghrhrcnmd+vdb`mrgnvax
ld`mrne`sqddch`fq`lsgdu`qhntrbnnbbtqqdmbdqdrsqhbshnmrsg`s
`bst`kkxdwhrs+`radknv9
(73)
Verbs
Irrealis
Realis
Past
Present
IMP
PRF
Ø
PROG
PRF
Present
IMP
Ø
PROG
IMP
Ø
PROG
Future
PRF
IMP
Ø
PROG
Hm`cchshnmsnsgdodqedbshud'OQE(+hlodqedbshud'HLO(`mc
oqnfqdrrhud'OQNF(l`qjdqr+sgdqddwhrsr`mnakhf`snqxqd`khr
hlodqedbshudl`qjdq'rdd1-2-0-adknv(`mc`mnoshnm`kqd`khroqnfqdrrhud
l`qjdq'rdd1-2-3-adknv(d`bgnevghbgbnlahmdrlnc`k`mc`rodbst`k
ed`stqdrhm`rhmfkdl`qjdq-Nsgdqvhrd+lnrsl`qjdqrhmMfxdla——ml`qj
53
`singleudqa`kb`sdfnqx9lncd+sdmrd+`rodbsoronk`qhsx-Sghrdwhrsdmbd
nerdo`q`sdlnqogdldrsg`s`qdtm`lahftntrkxdhsgdqsdmrd+`rodbsnq
mdf`shnml`qjdqrhrmnssxohb`kne@eqhb`mk`mft`fdr-Ltbglnqdbnllnm
hrsgddwhrsdmbdneu`qhntrlnqogdldrsg`sbnlahmdcheedqdmssdmrd+`rodbs
`mconk`qhsxoqnodqshdrhm`rhmfkdl`qjdq'Vdkldqr+08629232,3(-
Vdb`mqdrs`sdsgdu`qhntrbnnbbtqqdmbdqdrsqhbshnmrrgnvmhmsgd
oqdbdchmfsqddch`fq`laxld`mrnesgdenkknvhmfhlokhb`shnm`k
rs`sdldmsr9
(74)
Implicational Statements
If realis, then non-future.
If irrealis, then non-past.
If past, then realis.
If future, then irrealis.
If progressive, then imperfective.
If present perfective, then realis.
If present irrealis, then imperfective.
Sgdrdoqnrdhlokhb`shnm`krs`sdldmsrb`m`krnadqdenqltk`sdctrhmf
ntqahm`qxfq`ll`shb`ked`stqdr`mc`mhlokhb`shnm`k`qqnv!!`r
adknv9
54
(75)
Formal Implicational Statements
[+real]
[-fut]
[-real]
[-past]
[+past]
[+real]
[+fut]
[-real]
[+prog]
[-perf]
+perf
-past
[+real]
-fut
-real
-past
[-perf]
-fut
Rne`q+vdg`udnmkxqdedqqdcsno`rs+oqdrdms`mcetstqd`rsdlonq`k
chrshmbshnmr-@bst`kkx+hshrhmsdmrdl`qjdqrsg`ssgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fd+khjd
l`mxA`mstk`mft`fdr+hro`qshbtk`qkxqhbg-Snadrodbhehb+Mfxdla——mchuhcdr
ansgo`rs`mcetstqdshldhmsnentqrdo`q`sdrdl`mshbb`sdfnqhdr'sgdbknrdkx
qdk`sdck`mft`fdneCrbg`mf`bst`kkxchuhcdrhmsnehudb`sdfnqhdr+`rodq
S`c`cidt+086490(-Ntqshldrodbsqtlhrsgtrchuhcdctohmsnmhmdcheedqdms
rdbshnmr'hmrsd`cnedkdudm(+`mcvdltrssgdqdenqdtrdentqfq`ll`shb`k
ed`stqdrsnetkkxchrshmfthrgd`bgnesgdrdld`mhmfreqnlsgdnsgdqr-Vd
sgdqdenqdcdehmdsgdmhmdMfxdla——msdmrdr`bbnqchmfsnsgdahm`qxrdl`mshb
ed`stqdbnlahm`shnmrentmchmsgdenkknvhmfs`akd9
55
(76)
Tense Features
P4
P3
P2
P1
Ø
F1
F2
F3
F4
[past]
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
[fut]
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
[rem]
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
[near]
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
Sgdoqdbdchmfmhmdsdmrdrhmbktcdentqo`rssdmrdr'hmchb`sdcaxsgd
rxlank!O!(`mcentqetstqdsdmrdr'hmchb`sdcaxsgdrxlank!E!(`rvdkk
`rsgdydqnsdmrd'hmchb`sdcaxsgdrxlank!∂!(vghbgqdedqrsnsgd
oqdrdmslnldms-Gxl`mg`rrgnvmsg`ssgdbknrdkxqdk`sdcCrbg`mf
k`mft`fdl`xtrdltkshokdsdmrdl`qjdqrsnhmchb`sdqdk`shudshld
qdedqdmbd'087/9118(-SgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fd+nmsgdnsgdqg`mc+cndr
mnsrddlsntrdltkshokdsdmrdl`qjdqrsnhmchb`sdqdk`shudshldqdedqdmbd-
@r`qdrtks+sgdenkknvhmfkhrshmchb`sdrsgdentqcdfqddrneqdlnsdmdrr+
ansgo`rs`mcetstqd+eqnlsgdoqdrdmslnldms9
56
(77)
Tense: Degree of Remoteness
P4 :
a long time ago
P3 :
some time ago
P2 :
yesterday
P1 :
earlier today
Ø
present or immediate past (see "aspect")
:
F1 :
later today
F2 :
tomorrow
F3 :
some time from now
F4 :
a long time from now
Sgda`rhbhmchb`shnmnesgdu`qhntrsdmrdrhrcnmdaxld`mrnecheedqdms
!l`qjdqr-!Sgdydqnsdmrdhrhmchb`sdcaxsgd`ardmbdne`mxnudqssdmrd
lnqogdld-Sgdetstqdsdmrdr`qdl`qjdcaxsgdoqdrdmbdneu`qhntr`twhkh`qx
udqar+svnnesgdetstqdsdmrdr`bst`kkxg`uhmf`bgnhbdadsvddmsvncheedqdms
`twhkh`qxudqarsnhmchb`sdsgdr`ldrdl`mshbed`stqdr-Sgqddnesgdo`rssdmrdr
l`jdtrdnenqchm`qxsdmrdl`qjdqrvghkdsgdtmtrt`kO3sdmrdhrhmchb`sdcax
bnlahmhmfl`qjdqrenqO2`mcE3-@kknesgdrdl`qjdqr`mcsgdhqbnqqdronmchmf
snm`kodqstqa`shnmr`qdchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-adknv-
HmoqduhntrvnqjraxG%S+sgdldsgncnknfhb`krsq`sdfx`cnosdcg`r
addmsns`jdsgdsnmdqtkdrcdudknodcsng`mckdsnmdbg`mfdrhmsgdmntm
ogq`rd`mcrddgnve`qsgdxvhkkfnhmdwok`hmhmfsgdsnmdbg`mfdrhmsgd
udqaogq`rd-Sghrr`ldrsq`sdfxg`raddmenkknvdchmntqqdrd`qbg`mc
57
oqdrdms`shnm-@r`qdrtks+vdvhkknmkxoqnonrd`cchshnmrnqlnchehb`shnmr
snsgdqtkdr`kqd`cxcdudknodcenqsgdmntmogq`rd`rqdpthqdcaxsgd
`cchshnm`kc`s`g`uhmfsncnvhsgudqar-
Adenqdadfhmmhmfntqhm,cdosgdw`lhm`shnm+hsvntkcadgdkoetkenqsgd
qd`cdqsng`ud`mhcd`nesgdhmsdqm`krsqtbstqdnesgdudqahsrdke-Rhmbd
sghrhmbktcdru`qhntrsnm`klnqogdldr+vdkhrssgdhmsdqm`krsqtbstqdnesgd
udqa`radknv9
(78)
where:
Internal Structure of the Verb
verb
(REIM)
vbst
V
PT1
vbst
(PT2)
(I)
(S)
REIM- Realis imperfective prefix
vbst- Verb stem
PT1 - Realis or irrealis polar tones
V
- Verb root
S
- Verb suffix, toneless /-te/ syllable
PT2 - Irrealis polar tone
I
58
- Imperfective suffix
@rb`madrddmhmsgdoqdbdchmfenqltk`r+nmkxsgdudqaqnns`mc`
oqdbdchmfonk`qsnmdlnqogdld'dhsgdqqd`khrnqhqqd`khr(`qdnakhf`snqhkx
oqdrdmshm`kkudqar-Sgdnoshnm`khsdlr+hmo`qdmsgdrdr+`qdoqdrdmsnmkx
vgdmsgdhqo`qshbtk`qed`stqdrb`kkenqsgdl+vhsgsgddwbdoshnmnesgd
snmdkdrrudqarteehwvgnrdoqdrdmbdhrrodbhehdchmsgdkdwhbnmenqd`bg
`eedbsdcudqa-Sgdonk`qsnmdlnqogdldoqdbdchmfsgdudqarsdlhrnmkx
nakhf`snqxhmsg`ssgdr`ldonrhshnmhrnbbtohdcaxansgqd`khr`mchqqd`khr
onk`qsnmdr+`mcdudqxrdmsdmbdhrdhsgdqqd`khrnqhqqd`khrhmlncd-Sgd
bqtbh`kcheedqdmbdhmsgdrdsvnlnqogdldrhrsg`ssgdqd`khrhrhmrdqsdc
adenqdsgdl`inqhsxnesnmdqtkdrvghkdsgdhqqd`khrhrhmrdqsdcvgdmnmkx
sgdk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdrqdl`hm-Sgdudqxcheedqdmsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmr
sg`sqdrtks`qdchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmsgdenkknvhmfrta,rdbshnmr-
59
2.3.1. With realis/irrealis tones
Hmsgdhmchb`shudlnnc+sgdqd`qdehudrdo`q`sdonrrhakdbnmrsqtbshnmr
hmunkuhmf`rodbst`k,lnc`k,sxodld`mhmfr-Hshrnmkxhmsgdoqdrdms'ydqn(
sdmrd+gnvdudq+sg`s`kkehudonrrhahkhshdr`qd`bst`kkxodqlhrrhakd+`r
rgnvmhmntqbg`qsadknv'vgdqdsgdehqrsqnvhroqdedbshud`mcsgdk`rs
entqqnvr`qdhlodqedbshud(9
(79)
Distribution of Verbal Markers
Markers
P4
P3
P2
P1
Ø
F1
F2
F3
F4
Ø +Ø + Ø
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Ø +N-+-I
x
x
x
x
x
ne+N-+-I
x
x
x
x
x
Ø +Ø +-I
x
x
x
x
x
ne+Ø +-I
x
x
x
x
x
Hmsgdoqdbdchmfbg`qs+sgd.md.l`qjdqbkd`qkxrhfm`kroqnfqdrrhud
ld`mhmf`mcsgdhlodqedbshududqarteehw'rxlankhydcax!,H!(rhfm`kr
hlodqedbshud`rodbs+atssgdgnlnqf`mhbm`r`kbnmrnm`msudqaoqdehw
60
'rxlankhydcax!M,!(g`r`lnqdu`ftdld`mhmf-Ntqbg`qsrgnvrsg`s
sghrm`r`koqdehwhr`kv`xroqdrdmsvhsgsgdhlodqedbshudrteehwhmo`rs
sdmrdr+atsmdudqoqdrdmshmetstqdsdmrdr-Etqsgdqadknv+vdrg`kk`qftd
sg`ssghrm`r`koqdehwrhfm`kr!qd`khrhlodqedbshud!ld`mhmf-
Ehqrs+vdltrsdw`lhmdlnqdbknrdkxsgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsvghkd
jddohmfhmlhmconrrhakdfq`ll`shb`ked`stqdrsg`sl`xadtrdcsn
fdmdq`sd`kkehudnesgdrdbnmrsqtbshnmr-Rhmbdsgdqd`qdehudbnmrsqtbshnmr+
`mcmnsentq+vdvhkkmddc`lhmhltlne`skd`rssgqdded`stqdr-Hsrddlr
adrssntrdsgdahm`qxed`stqdrZodqe\`mcZoqnf\snfdmdq`sdsgded`stqdr
`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdhqqdrodbshudrdl`mshbehdkcr+odqedbshud.hlodqedbshud
`mcoqnfqdrrhud.mnm,oqnfqdrrhud`rodbs-Sghrkd`udrhmptdrshnmnmkxsgd
k`adk`mcld`mhmfnesgdsghqced`stqd-Vdoqnonrdhmsghrchrrdqs`shnmsgd
ed`stqdZqd`k\'qd`khr.hqqd`khr(snadsgdsghqcahm`qxfq`ll`shb`ked`stqd-
Nmdnesgdqd`rnmrvdcnsghrhrsg`sbdqs`hmeqdptdmssnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgd
udqarsdlbnqqdk`sdghfgkxvhsgetstqdur-mnm,etstqdbnmrsqtbshnmr-Vd
vhkkqdedqsnsgdrdghfgkxeqdptdmssnmdo`ssdqmr`rsgd!qdftk`q!qd`khrnq
hqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmr+enqqd`rnmrsg`svhkkadbnld`oo`qdmsadknv-Sgdrd
qdftk`qrtqe`bdsnmdo`ssdqmr`qd`radknv9
61
'7/(
Rtqe`bdSnmdr
Kdwhb`ksnmdrQd`khrHqqd`khr
GsnmdudqaqnnsG∫G∫
Ksnmdudqaqnns∫G∫K∫
D`bgudqarsdlhmMfxdla——m'vgdsgdqhsadlnmnrxkk`ahbnq
chrxkk`ahb(bnldrvhsg`rhmfkdkdwhb`ksnmdnmsgdudqaqnns+`mcsg`ssnmd
hrdhsgdqGnqK-Sgd`bst`krtqe`bdohsbgqd`khy`shnmnmudqaru`qhdr
fqd`skx`mccdodmcr`fqd`scd`knmsgdu`qhntrudqa`ked`stqdrnesgd
bnmrsqtbshnmhmptdrshnm-Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsrgnvrsg`stmcdqkxhmfG
`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsr`qd`bst`kkxqd`khydcnmsgdrtqe`bdnmG`mc
cnvmrsdoodcGsnmdrenqlnrsqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr-Enqhqqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdtmcdqkxhmfG`mcKsnmdnesgdudqaqnnshrtrt`kkx
aq`bjdsdcaxcnvmrsdor+nmdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdudqaqnns`mcsgd
nsgdqhlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfhs-
Vdb`mmnvqdcnsgdoqdbdchmfsnmdbg`qsnmsnmdchrsqhatshnmvhsg
u`qhntrsdmrd`mc`rodbsl`qjdqr+`radknv9
62
(81)
Realis/Irrealis Tone Distribution
Features
P4
P3
P2
P1
Ø
F1
[+perf]
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
I/I
-perf
+real
-prog
x/R
x/x
x/x
R/R
R/R
-perf
+real
+prog
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
x/R
-perf
-real
-prog
x/I
-perf
-real
+prog
I/I
I/I
I/I
F2
F3
F4
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
63
Hmsgdoqdbdchmfbg`qs+sgd!Q!rs`mcrenq`qdftk`qqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqm+
sgd!H!enq`qdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqm+`mcsgdrl`kk!w!enqsgnrd
dmuhqnmldmsrvgdqdhmchuhct`klnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrqdrtkshmu`qhntr
hchnrxmbq`shbsnmdo`ssdqmr-Sgdkdssdqadenqdd`bgrk`rghmchb`sdrsgdsnmd
o`ssdqmnesgdonrhshudrdmsdmbdvghkdsgdkdssdq`esdqd`bgrk`rghmchb`sdr
hsrmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qs-Bknrddw`lhm`shnmnesgdodqedbshudonrrhahkhshdr
`anudrgnvrsg`setstqdodqedbshudrs`jdqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdrvghkdmnm,
etstqdodqedbshudrs`jdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr'`skd`rshmsgdmdf`shudr(-
Rhmbdvdg`ud`kqd`cx`fqddcsnsgdmddcnesgdahm`qxZqd`k\ed`stqdhm
nqcdqsnchrshmfthrgsgdentqhlodqedbshudo`ssdqmreqnld`bgnsgdq+vd
vhkketqsgdqoqnehseqnlsghrlnudaxdwsdmchmfsgdtrdnesghred`stqdsn
hmbktcdodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgtrsgdl`qjhmfneqd`khrnqhqqd`khr
`rodbsnmodqedbshududqa`kbnmrsqtbshnmrvhkkdm`akdtrsnlnqdd`rhkx
fdmdq`sdsgdoqnodqsnmdrnmudqar-Chuhchmfsgdodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr
to`bbnqchmfsnsgdhqqd`khr'h-d-mnm,etstqd(ur-hqqd`khr'h-d-etstqd(
m`stqd+vd`qd`akdsnrkhfgskxqduhrdntqoqduhntrbg`qs'vhsgsgdcntakd
khmdmnvrdo`q`shmfqd`khreqnlhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr(+`radknv9
64
(82)
Revised Realis/Irrealis Tone Distribution
P4
P3
x/R
-perf
+real
-prog
-perf
+real
+prog
Features
+perf
+real
P2
P1
Ø
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/x
x/x
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
x/R
+perf
-real
F1
F2
F3
F4
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
-perf
-real
-prog
x/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
-perf
-real
+prog
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
65
Hsrgntkcadbkd`qkxrs`sdc`ssghrshldsg`ssgdl`inqqd`rnmsg`svd
mddc`sghqcahm`qxed`stqdkhjdZqd`k\hrsnoqdchbssgdnbbtqqdmbdnq
`ardmbdnesgdm`r`koqdehwadenqdsgdudqarsdlhmsgdoqdrdms'nqydqn(
sdmrd-Nmbdvd`qdenqbdcsnonrhsrtbg`ed`stqd+gnvdudq+sgdoqdbdchmf
bg`qsrgnvrsgdr`lded`stqdb`m`krnadtrdetkhmoqdchbshmfsgdu`rs
l`inqhsxne`bst`krtqe`bdsnmdrsg`snbbtqnmsgdudqarsdl-
Vd`qdmnvhm`onrhshnmsnmnshbdrdudq`ksghmfreqnlsgdoqdbdchmf
bg`qs-Ehqrs+`klnrs`kknesgdrl`kk!w!rhmchb`shmfrodbh`klnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkdr`ookxsnonrhshudrdmsdmbdr-RhmbdansgE1`mcE3
`bst`kkxg`udsvnrdo`q`sdbnmrsqtbshnmrd`bg'rdd1-2-2-adknv(+vdb`m
r`xsg`setkkx22ntsne24'nq83odqbdms(nesgdmdf`shudhmchb`shud
bnmrsqtbshnmrs`jdsgdqdftk`q'tmlnchehdc(qd`khrnqhqqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdhq
udqaqnnsr-Sghrodqbdms`fdhrrnldvg`skdrrenqsgdhqonrhshud
bntmsdqo`qsr+vgdqdnmkx14ntsne24'nq60odqbdms(s`jdsgdqdftk`q
qd`khrnqhqqd`khrsnmdr-Sghrrgnvrtrsg`setkkx47ntsne6/'nq72
odqbdms(nesgdonrhshud`mcmdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnmrb`moqdchbssgdhq
rtqe`bdsnmdo`ssdqmsolelynmsgda`rhrnesgdoqdrdmbdnq`ardmbdne
sgdonrhsdcqd`khred`stqd-Sghrhrrtqdkx`mhlonqs`msrhcdadmdehsnesgd
mdbdrrhsxneonrhshmfrtbg`ed`stqd'vghbgvdg`udbgnrdmsnk`adk
!qd`khr.hqqd`khr!(-@mnsgdqrhcdadmdehshrsg`ssghrk`adkhmfhlokhdrsg`ssgd
lnqdeqdptdmsqd`khr`mchqqd`khrsnm`ko`ssdqmr`qdkdrrl`qjdcsg`msgd
66
u`qhntrhchnrxmbq`shbsnm`ko`ssdqmrvghbg`qdpthsdqhfgskxqdf`qcdc`r
kdrreqdptdms`mclnqdl`qjdc-
Hsrgntkc`krnadldmshnmdcsg`ssgdhqqd`khrsnmdl`qjhmfhrltbg
lnqdbnmrhrsdms'h-d-mnssnadlnchehdcaxnsgdqlnqogn,snmnknfhb`k
qtkdr(sg`mhsrqd`khro`qsmdq-Eqnlsgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsnmbd`f`hm+vdb`m
rddsg`setkkx28ntsne3/'nq86-4odqbdms(nesgdhqqd`khrhmchb`shud
bnmrsqtbshnmr`qdqd`khydcvhsgsgdqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdr-Nmsgdnsgdq
g`mc+nmkx08ntsne2/'nq52odqbdms(nesgdqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr`qd
`bst`kkxqd`khydcognmdshb`kkxvhsgsgdhqqd`khrsnmdr-Sghrhradb`trdsgd
u`qhntrlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrrddlsng`ud`rodbh`k`eehmhsxenqsgd
onrhshudqd`khr'drodbh`kkxonrhshudodqedbshudqd`khr(bnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg
g`oodmsnadsgdlnrseqdptdmskxtrdchmmnql`kdudqxc`xroddbg-Hs
sgdqdenqdrddlrsg`ssgdsxohb`krod`jdqhr`akdsnqdldladqsgdtmtrt`k
snm`ko`ssdqmrnesgdlnrsbnllnmkxtrdcbnmrsqtbshnmroqdbhrdkxadb`trd
sgdx`qdsgdlnrseqdptdmskxronjdm`mcgd`qchmmnql`kudqa`k
hmsdq`bshnm-
@ssghronhms+vdrgntkcrod`jsnsgdrtaidbsnesgdtmcdqkxhmf
rdl`mshbhmenql`shnmb`qqhdcaxntqmdvkxonrhsdcZqd`k\ed`stqd-Hshr
`oo`qdmseqnlsgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsrsg`s`kko`rshmchb`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr
`qd!qd`khr!`mc`kketstqdbnmrsqtbshnmr`qd!hqqd`khr-!Eqnlsghrvdlhfgs
onrstk`sdsg`ssgded`stqdg`rsncnvhsgvgdsgdqsgdoqnonrhshnmbnmudxdc
axsgdbnmrsqtbshnmhr!qd`k!hmsgdrdmrdsg`shshrrnldgnvudqheh`akd`s
67
sgdlnldmsnerod`jhmf-Hsrgntkcadldmshnmdc`ssghronhmssg`sZ*qd`k\+
nq!qd`khr+!cndrmnsld`m!qd`khydc!hmsgdrdmrdsg`srnldsghmfg`r
`bst`kkxbnldsno`rr+rhmbd!qd`khr!`ookhdrsnansgonrhshud`mcmdf`shud
bnmrsqtbshnmr`mcsgddwoqdrrotqonrdne`o`rsmdf`shudqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmlhfgsadsn`rrdqssg`ssgdoqnonrhshnmlnrsbdqs`hmkxchcnot
bnldsno`rr-Hshrsgdqdenqdadrssnsghmjnesghred`stqd`rld`mhmf
rnldsghmfkhjd!qd`k+!`mcmns!qd`khydc-!
Rhmbdsgdahm`qxZqd`k\ed`stqd`krndwhrsrhmsgdoqdrdmssdmrd+`mchm
ansghsronrhshud`mcmdf`shudqd`khy`shnmrvgdqdvdb`mbnlo`qdsgd
ld`mhmflnqdbknrdkx+vdvhkkdw`lhmd`bntokdnesgdrdrdmsdmbdrsnfds
`rg`qodqeddkhmfenqsgdrdl`mshbehdkchmchb`sdc-Ntqehqrsrdmsdmbdbntkc
adk`adkkdcsgd!oqdrdmsqd`khroqnfqdrrhud!`mchshrqd`khydc`radknv9
(83) aL neL nzKaБMa mbaLb "he is in the process of cutting meat"
Sgdoqdbdchmfrdmsdmbdg`rsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdhlodqedbshudqd`khr
m`r`koqdehw'rxlankhydcaxsgdtmcdqkhmdc!m!(`mcb`qqhdrsgdrdl`mshb
vdhfgsne`arnktsd`rrtq`mbd-Sghrhrsnadbnmsq`rsdcvhsgsgdenkknvhmf
dw`lokdvghbgbntkcadk`adkkdcsgd!oqdrdmshqqd`khroqnfqdrrhud!9
68
(84) aJ neL zKaБMa mbaLb
"he is (probably) in the process of
cutting meat"
Sghrk`rsdw`lokdmnsnmkxk`bjrsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdhlodqedbshudqd`khr
m`r`koqdehwnmsgdudqa+hs`krnbnlltmhb`sdrsnsgdkhrsdmdqsg`ssgd
rod`jdqhrmns`arnktsdkxrtqdsg`svg`sgdhrr`xhmfhrsqtd-Sgtr+nmd
bntkcr`xsg`ssgd`ardmbdneqd`khrl`qjhmfhmsghrbnmsdws
bnlltmhb`sdr`bdqs`hmcdfqddnetmbdqs`hmsx-Sghrtmbdqs`hmsxhrmns
tmkhjdsgdtmbdqs`hmsxsg`smdbdrr`qhkx`bbnlo`mhdr`mxoqnmntmbdldms
qdk`shmfsnsgdetstqd-Vdb`msgtrrddsg`ssghrbdqs`hm.tmbdqs`hm
rdl`mshbchrshmbshnmhrpthsdbknrdsnsgdld`mhmfnesgdahm`qxed`stqd
vdbgnnrdsnk`adk!qd`khr.hqqd`khr-!
Hmnqcdqsncdqhudsgdqdftk`qqd`khr`mchqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrtrhmfsgd
snmdqtkdr`kqd`cxcdudknodchmsghrchrrdqs`shnm+ntq`m`kxrhrltrsonrhs
rdudq`ksnm`klnqogdldr+lnrsmns`akxsgqddcheedqdmspolarsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldrvgdqdsgdoqdbhrdm`stqdnesgdsnmdhrcdehmdc`radhmfsgd
dw`bsnoonrhsdnesgdenkknvhmf`rrnbh`sdcsnmd-Ntqehqrsonk`qsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldhmchb`sdrqd`khrlncd`mchshlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdrsgdudqa
qnns-Sgdrdbnmconk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhmchb`sdrhqqd`khrlncd`mc
`krnhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdrsgdudqaqnns-Sgdbqtbh`kcheedqdmbdadsvddm
sgdrdsvnekn`shmfonk`qsnmdrhrsg`ssgdqd`khrnmdhrhmrdqsdchmsgdsnmd
o`ssdqmbeforesgdsnmdqtkdrnodq`sd+vghkdhsrhqqd`khrbntmsdqo`qshr
69
hmrdqsdcafter-Sgdhqqd`khronk`qsnmdlnqogdldoqdbdchmfsgdudqahr
`krn`bbnlo`mhdcax`rdbnmconk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldvghbg
hlldch`sdkxenkknvrsgdudqaqnns-Ansgnesgdrdhqqd`khronk`qsnmdrvhkk
adhmrdqsdcaxsgdr`ldk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd-
Sgdtmtrt`knqcdqhmfnesghrsnm`khmrdqshnmqtkd`esdqsgdnodq`shnmne
lnrsnesgdsnm`kqtkdr'dwbktchmfntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkd(hroqna`akx
qdk`sdcsnsgdqdbdmsghrsnqhb`kcdudknoldmsnesgdrdetstqd'`mcsgdqdenqd
hqqd`khr(sdmrdr-Hme`bs+sgd`twhkh`qxudqarvghbg`qdtrdcsnl`qjetstqd
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'vgdqd!O!rxlankhydr`onk`qsnmdvghbgb`mnmkxadjmnvmvgdmsgd
enkknvhmfsnmdhr`krnjmnvm(9
(85)
Underlying Tones
Lexical tones
70
Realis
Irrealis
H tone verb root
L-H-Ø
L-H-P
L tone verb root
H-L-Ø
H-L-P
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`kqd`cxonrhsdcenqsgdmntmogq`rdsnfhudtrntqentql`inqrtqe`bdsnmd
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stqm-Vdvhkkkhlhsntqrdkudrhmsghrrdbshnmsnsgdkdrrl`qjdcodqedbshud
snmdo`ssdqmr+kd`uhmfsgdlnqdbnlokhb`sdchlodqedbshudo`ssdqmr`mc
tmtrt`ko`ssdqmrenqsgdenkknvhmfrdbshnmr-
Hmsgdqdl`hmcdqnesghrchrrdqs`shnm+vdvhkkbhsdu`qhntrdw`lokdr
eqnlMfxdla——m+khlhshmfntqrdkudr`klnrsdwbktrhudkxsnsgdrtaidbs
oqnmntm.`∆.!gd+!sgdnaidbs.l–a`∆a.!ld`s+!sgdaho`qshsdmdf`shud
lnqogdld.sd∆---v—æ.+`mcsgdenkknvhmfentqudqarsdlr9
(86)
Monosyllabic
Disyllabic
zaБ "cut"
lumte "bite"
H tone verb root
L tone verb root
gwDБ "grind"
limte "reheat"
Sgdehqrsudqasnmdo`ssdqmsg`svdvhkkdw`lhmdhrvhsgsgdO2sdmrd
l`qjdq.k`∆.`mcsgda`rhbqd`khrsnm`ko`ssdqmnm`lnmnrxkk`ahbGsnmd
udqaqnns+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd'mdf`shudrhmbd`kkonrhshud
odqedbshudrdmsdmbdrtmcdqfnrdo`q`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr(9
(87)
aL laL teL zaJБ mbaLb wDJ
3
3
3
1
3
1
"he did not cut the meat"
(yesterday)
he P3 NEG cut meat NEG
71
Sgdtmcdqkhmdcvnqchmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdhrntqlnmnrxkk`ahb
Gsnmdudqaqnnsvghbghrgdqdqd`khydcnm`Gsnmdkdudk'0(-@r
ldmshnmdc`anud+ntq`m`kxrhrcdqhudrsghro`ssdqmaxld`mrne`onk`q
snmdsnm`klnqogdldvghbghrgdqd`KsnmdoqdbdchmfsgdGsnmdnesgd
udqaqnns-Ntqo`ssdqm`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdhmhsh`ksnmdl`oohmf
qtkdg`r`rrnbh`sdc'mdv`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrbnmshmthmfsnadrhfm`kdcax
rk`rgdckhmdr(sgdGsnmdnesgdudqaqnnssnsgdrxkk`akdnesgdr`ld
lnqogdld'gdqdl`qjdc`r!U!snrhfm`ksgdudqaqnns(9
(88)
#
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Vgdmhshrshldhmsgdcdqhu`shnmenqsgdqdftk`qtmnqcdqdcsnmdqtkdr
snnodq`sdeqnlkdessnqhfgsnmsgdsnm`kshdq+ntqsnmdqtkdenq`rrnbh`shmf
Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdldrsnsgdkdes'snmdqtkd4cdrbqhadchmsgdrdbshnm
1-1-1-`anud(nodq`sdr`radknv9
(89)
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Rhmbdsgdvnqcoqdbdchmf`udqa`klnrs`kv`xrdmcrnm`Ksnmd+sghr
72
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k`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdcndrmns`ookx+kd`uhmfntqkdwhb`kGsnmdsnad
qd`khydcnmsgdohsbgkdudkne'0(+`radknv9
(90)
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1
Udqarsdlrnbb`rhnm`kkxg`udsvnrxkk`akdr+trt`kkxctdsnsgd
`cchshnmne`snmdkdrr.,sd.rteehw+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(91)
aL laL teL luJmteJ mbaLb wDJ
3
3
3
1
1
3
"he did not bite the meat"
1
(yesterday)
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdudqahmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdhrtmcdqkhmdc+
hmbktchmfhsrsnmdkdrr.,sd.rteehw'rxlankhydcax!R!hmsgdenkknvhmf
qdoqdrdms`shnmr(-Vdsgdqdenqdg`ud`o`ssdqmkhjdsgdenkknvhmf`esdqsgd
snmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(92)
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73
Hshr`ssghronhmssg`sntqqdftk`qsnmdqtkdrbnldhmsnok`x-Hshr
hlonqs`mssnqdldladqsg`ssgdrdqtkdrnodq`sdlocallynmsgdsnm`kshdq+
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o`ssdqmhrsgtrsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdlnqogdldqtkd+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(93)
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Vdldmshnmdc`anudsg`shmntq`m`kxrhr+sgdo`qsneFnkcrlhsg&r
VEBvghbgr`xrsg`sdudqxunvdkltrsad`rrnbh`sdcsn`snmdvntkcad
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sgdsnm`kshdqaxsgdsnm`kqtkdr-Sgdhcd`nesqd`shmfsgdVEB`r`snm`k
qtkd'rtaidbssnrsqhbsnqcdqhmf(g`roqduhntrkxaddmrtffdrsdcax
Bkdldmsr`mcEnqc'086891/7(-Rhmbdsgdnmkxsnmdkdrrlnqogdldvghbg
sqhffdqrsghrqtkdhrsgdsnmdkdrrudqarteehw.,sd.+`mchs`kv`xr`rrnbh`sdr
snsgdehqrssnmdnmhsrkdes+vdfhud`oqdkhlhm`qxudqrhnmnesghrqtkd`r
adknv'`qduhrdcudqrhnmvhsg`cdkdshnmnoshnmhrcdrbqhadchm'073(
adknv(9
74
(94) Rule 8: Well-formedness Rule (WFR)
#
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Sghrqtkdr`xrsg`svgdmdudq`snmdkdrrrxkk`akdhrentmc'hmsgdkdes,
sn,qhfgs`ookhb`shnmnesgdsnmdqtkdr(+hshr`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdehqrssnmd
entmcsnhsrkdes-SgdqdrtksnesgdVEQnmntqoqdrdmso`ssdqmhrsgtrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(95)
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Vd`qdmnvkdesvhsg`rhmfkdGsnmd`rrnbh`sdcsnansgnesgd
rxkk`akdrnentqchrxkk`ahbudqa-Rhmbdsgdqd`qdmnekn`shmfsnmdrsn
sqhffdqntqqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd+ansgrxkk`akdr`qdqd`khydcnm
ohsbgkdudk'0(+`radknv9
(96)
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1-1
StqmhmfmnvsnntqKsnmdlnmnrxkk`ahbudqaqnns+hs`ood`qr`radknv
vgdmhshrl`qjdcenqsgda`rhbqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqm9
75
(97)
aL laL teL gwKDY mbaLb wDJ
3
3
3
2
4
"he did not pound the meat"
2
(yesterday)
Sgdtmcdqkhmdcudqahmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdhrqd`khydcnm`
cnvmrsdoodcGsnmd'1(hmrsd`cnesgdtmcdqkxhmfkdwhb`kKsnmd'2(-Sghr
cdqhu`shnms`jdrok`bdnmntqtmcdqkxhmfsnmdr+vghbghmbktcd`onk`qsnmd
snm`klnqogdldl`qjhmfqd`khrlncd-Rhmbdsgdonk`qsnmdhr`Gsnmd
gdqdhmnqcdqsnadsgdnoonrhsdnehsrenkknvhmfkdwhb`kKsnmd+ntqsnmd
o`ssdqm`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdhmhsh`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(98)
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Mnv+hmrsd`cnentqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdlnqogdldqtkd+ntq
qhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdlnqogdldqtkdb`trdrsgdenkknvhmfsnm`k
bg`mfdr'vgdqdsgdrl`kkrk`rgdr..hmchb`sd`cdkdsdc`rrnbh`shnmkhmd(9
(99)
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Rhmbdudqar`qd`klnrs`kv`xroqdbdcdcaxrxkk`akdr'rxlankhydcax
!#!hmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm(vghbg`qd`rrnbh`sdcsnKsnmdr+sgd
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76
lds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbglnudrsgdekn`shmfKsnmdhmeqnmsnesgd`rrnbh`sdc
Gsnmd+`radknv9
(100)
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Rhmbdntq`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdhrmnvoqdbdcdcax`ekn`shmfKsnmd+hs
sqhffdqrntqqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd+vghbgb`trdrsgdudqaqnns
snadqd`khydcognmdshb`kkxnm`knvdqdcohsbgkdudk'1(+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(101)
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Sgdr`ldjhmcnekdwhb`kKsnmdudqaqnnsb`m`krnadlnchehdcaxsgd
`cchshnmnesgdkdwhb`kkxsnmdkdrr.,sd.rteehw+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(102) aL laL teL lKimteJ mbaLb wDJ
3
3
3
2
2
4
2
"he did not reheat the meat"
(yesterday)
@kknvhmfenqsgdr`ldonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldadhmfqd`khydc`r`
Gsnmdadenqdsgdkdwhb`kKsnmd+sgda`rhbqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnm`ood`qr`r
adknv`esdqnodq`shnmnesgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkd9
77
(103)
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Nmbd`f`hm+sgdehqrssnmdqtkdsn`eedbssghrqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmvhsg`
Ksnmdudqaqnnshrntqqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdlnqogdldqtkdvghbg
qdrtksrhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(104)
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Mnvsg`ssgdKsnmdhrekn`shmf+hshrlnudchmeqnmsnesgd`rrnbh`sdc
Gsnmd`esdq`m`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdaxsgd`ookhb`shnmnentqlds`sgdrhr
qtkd+`radknv9
(105)
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Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqVEQ+vghbgmnv`rrnbh`sdrsgd
snmdkdrr.,sd.udqarteehwvhsgsgd`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdnesgdudqaoqdehw+`r
adknv9
(106)
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Hshrbqtbh`khmsgdoqdrdmscdqhu`shnmsg`ssgdVEQ:nodq`sdrlocally
fnhmfeqnlkdessnqhfgs+nqhsvntkcg`udvqnmfkx`rrnbh`sdcsgdR
rxkk`akdsnsgdsgdm`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdhlldch`sdkx`esdqsgdl`oohmfqtkd-
Sghroqnudrsg`ssgdVEQ`bsr`r`snm`krule+`mcmns`r`fdmdq`k
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Sgdehm`kqtkdsnnodq`sdnmsghro`ssdqmhrntqcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbg
knvdqrsgdohsbgqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg'sn1(adb`trdsgd`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdhr
oqdbdcdcax`ekn`shmfKsnmd-RhmbdsgdenqldqkxsnmdkdrrRrxkk`akdhr
mnv`rrnbh`sdcsnsghrr`ldknvdqdcGsnmd+hssnnhrqd`khydcnmsgdr`ld
ohsbgkdudk`rhsroqdcdbdrrnq+`radknv9
(107)
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Sghrbnmbktcdrntq`m`kxrhrnesgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmr`rsgdx
nbbtqnmudqarhmhmchb`shudodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Vdb`mmnvlnud
nmsnsgdo`q`kkdkhqqd`khro`ssdqmr-Vghkddw`lhmhmfsgdrdhqqd`khr
o`ssdqmr+vdvhkkbnmshmtdsnkhlhsntqrdkudrsnodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+
`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokdvhsg`mtmcdqkxhmfGkdwhb`ksnmd`mc`
lnmnrxkk`ahbudqaqnns9
79
(108) aL geL zKaY mbMab
3
3
2
5
"he will cut the meat"
(later today)
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokd'eqnlsgdE0etstqdsdmrd(rgnvrsgdsvn
cnvmrsdoqd`khy`shnmrbg`q`bsdqhrshbnehqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdsvn
nbbtqqdmbdrnecnvmrsdo'hmbktchmfsgdtmcdqkhmdcudqaqnnshmenbtr
gdqd(knvdqsgdsnmdqdfhrsdqsvhbdrnsg`ssgdehm`kKsnmdnmsgdnaidbshr
qd`khydcnmohsbgkdudk4hmrsd`cnesgdohsbgkdudk2ne`Ksnmd`ssgd
adfhmmhmfne`rdmsdmbd-Hmenbtr`ssghrlnldms`qdsgdcnvmrsdoed`stqd
nmsgdudqaqnns`mcsgdcnvmrsdoed`stqdnmsgdenkknvhmfnaidbs+ansgne
vghbgqdrtkseqnlsgdhqqd`khrl`qjhmfnesgdudqa-@raqhdekxldmshnmdc
`anud+vdonrhs`onk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldoqdbdchmfsgdudqarsdl`mc
`mnsgdqonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldenkknvhmfsgdrsdlvgdmdudqsgd
bnmrsqtbshnmhrl`qjdcenq`a`rhbhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqm-Sgdbqtbh`konhms
nesgdenkknvhmfcdqhu`shnm+gnvdudq+hrsg`ssgdrdsvnsnm`klnqogdldr
`qdmnsrodbhehdctmshkaftersgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrg`ud`ookhdc-Sghrk`sd
nqcdqhmfnesgdhqqd`khrlnqogn,snmnknfhb`khmrdqshnmqtkdhrvg`sbnmsq`rsr
hsvhsghsrqd`khrbntmsdqo`qs-Sgdnqcdqhmfnesgdhmrdqshnmne`mhcdmshb`k
onk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldsgtrqdrtksrhmpthsdcheedqdmsrtqe`bd
qd`khy`shnmr-
NtqGsnmdudqaqnnsvhsghqqd`khrlncdsgdqdenqd`ood`qr`radknv
`esdqsgdhmhsh`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc'vhsg`b`ohs`k!@!sn
80
hmchb`sdsgdKsnmdmntmbk`rroqdehwnesgdenkknvhmfnaidbs(9
(109)
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Sgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqmlddsrmnmdnesgdqdpthqdldmsrenqntqrdsne
snm`kqtkdr-@esdqsgdrdqtkdrg`udg`csgdhqbg`mbdsnnodq`sd+`k`sd
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'47/(adknv(vhkkhmrdqsntqsvnsnm`k
lnqogdldr+kd`uhmftrvhsg`o`ssdqmvghbgmnvknnjrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf9
(110)
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Sgdsvnonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldr`qdqd`khydccheedqdmskx+`Ksnmd
adenqdsgdGsnmdnesgdudqaqnns`mc`GsnmdadenqdsgdKsnmdnesgdsxohb`k
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`kqd`cxnodq`sdcaxsgdshldsgdrdonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldr`qdhmrdqsdc+mn
etqsgdqbg`mfds`jdrok`bddwbdossgdqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfdeedbsnentqcnvmrsdo
qtkd+vghbgnodq`sdrsvhbdhmsghro`ssdqm+`radknv9
81
(111)
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@bbnqchmfsnntqcnvmrsdoqtkd+`m`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdoqdbdcdcax`
ekn`shmfKsnmdhrqd`khydc`r`cnvmrsdoodc'knvdqdc(Gsnmd'ohsbgkdudk
1`anud(-Khjdvhrd+`m`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdoqdbdcdcax`ekn`shmfGsnmdhr
qd`khydc`r`cnvmrsdoodcKsnmd'ohsbgkdudk4`anudadb`trdsgd
qdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfdeedbsnecnvmrsdohrbtltk`shud(-Sgdqdrtkshrsg`ssgd
Ksnmdnesgdnaidbsoqdehwhr`bst`kkxqd`khydcsvnohsbgkdudkrknvdqsg`m
hmhrnk`shnm-
Hsrgntkcadonhmsdcntsgdqdsg`ssgdoqdbdchmfqdoqdrdms`shnmcndr
mnsbnqqdronmcdw`bskxsnsgddw`lokdbhsdc-Sgdqd`rnmenqsghrhrsg`sntq
dw`lokdtrdrsgdmntm.l–a`∆a.!ld`s!`rsgdnaidbs+`mntmsg`sg`rsvn
rxkk`akdrvgdmoqnmntmbdchmhrnk`shnmnq`esdq`rkhfgso`trd-Sgd
gnlnqf`mhbm`r`kmntmbk`rroqdehw'rxlankhydcaxsgdKsnmd!l!nmntq
mntm(`bst`kkxknrdrhsrrxkk`ahbhsxhmsgdlhcckdnemnql`kbnmrsqtbshnmr-
Hmsgdb`rdhmenbtr+sgdcdrxkk`ahehdcm`r`koqdehwnesgdmntm`bst`kkx
cqnornts+sgtrsq`mredqqhmfsgdcnvmrsdoed`stqdb`trdcaxsgdonk`qsnmd
snsgdenkknvhmfmntmqnns-Sgd`bst`ksnmdrqd`khydcnmnaidbsrhm
cheedqdmsdmuhqnmldmsr`qdchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-3-1-adknv-
82
Hevdehmc`Gsnmdudqarsdlvghbghmbktcdrsgdsnmdkdrr.,sd.rteehw+
vdg`ud`snmdo`ssdqm`radknv9
(112)
aL geL lKumteJ mbMab
3
3
2
2
5
"he will bite the meat"
(later today)
@rb`madrddm+sgdtmcdqkhmdcchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlhrgdqdqd`khydcnm
sgdr`ldohsbgkdudk'1(-Sgdehqrs`rrnbh`shnmkhmdsnadcq`vmnmsghr
o`ssdqmqdrtksreqnlntqfdmdq`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdvghbgnodq`sdr`r
adknv9
(113)
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Vgdmvdbnldsnntqqdftk`qsnmdqtkdrvdehmcsg`snmkxntqVEQ
qtkdnodq`sdr+`rrnbh`shmfsgdsnmdkdrrRrxkk`akdsnsgdehqrssnmdnmhsr
kdes+vghbghmsghrb`rdhrsgdGsnmdnesgdudqaqnns+`radknv9
(114)
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@esdqntqsnmdqtkdrg`udnodq`sdc+`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdhmrdqsr
sgdsvnonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldradenqd`mc`esdqsgdudqarsdl-Hshr
bqtbh`kgdqdsg`ssgdsnmdkdrrrteehw!R!hrbnmrhcdqdcsnado`qsnesgd
udqarsdl+rnsg`ssgdsnm`klnqogdldr`qdhmrdqsdc`radknv9
83
(115)
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Sgdnmkxqdl`hmhmfsnmdqtkdvghbg`ookhdrhrntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkd
vghbgknvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdqhmsvnok`bdr+`radknv9
(116)
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Vd`qdmnvqd`cxsnknnj`ssxohb`kKsnmdudqarsdlrl`qjdcenq
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(117)
aL geL gwMDY mbMab
3
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5
"he will pound the meat"
(later today)
Hmsghrdw`lokd+sgd'tmcdqkhmdc(udqaqnns`mcsgdnaidbs`qdansgqd`khydc
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udqaqnns`mcnaidbsoqdehwvghbg`qd`rrnbh`sdcaxsgdfdmdq`ksnmdl`oohmf
84
qtkd`radknv9
(118)
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Nmbd`f`hm+sgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqmlddsrmnmdnesgdqdpthqdldmsrenqntq
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lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvhkk`f`hmhmrdqsntqsvnonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldr+
kd`uhmftrvhsgsgdenkknvhmfo`ssdqm9
(119)
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qtkdrnodq`sdgdqddwbdossgdqdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd+vghbgqdrtksrhm
svncnvmrsdoodcKsnmdr+`radknv9
(120)
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85
SgdKsnmdudqarsdlrl`x`krnhmbktcdsgdsnmdkdrr.,sd.rteehw+`rhm
sgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(121)
aL geL lMimteL mbMab
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"he will reheat the meat"
5
(later today)
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdtmcdqkhmdcchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlhrqd`khydcnmsgd
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snmdl`oohmfqtkd`rrnbh`sdrsgdkdwhb`ksnmdr`rhmsgdenkknvhmf
qdoqdrdms`shnm9
(122)
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HmsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdsnmdkdrrRrteehw+vdehmcsg`sntqVEQqtkdhr
sgdnmkxsnmdqtkdsqhffdqdc+nodq`shmf`radknv9
(123)
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@esdqsghrqtkdg`r`rrnbh`sdcsgdRrxkk`akdsnsgdehqrssnmdnmhsrkdes+
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(125)
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87
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vgdmsgdhlodqedbshudrteehwvghbghrtmcdqkxhmfkx`Ksnmddbgnunvdkhr
`ccdc-Hmsgdenkknvhmf`tsnrdfldms`kqdoqdrdms`shnmr+vdrg`kkqdedqsn
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hrsg`svghbgnbbtqrvgdmGsnmdlnmnrxkk`ahbudqaqnnsr`qdqd`khydcnm
sgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokdeqnlsgdoqdrdms
qd`khrbnmrsqtbshnm'vghbghrtrdcsnrhfm`kg`ahst`kld`mhmf(9
(126)
aL nzaJYaL mbaLb
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unvdkrteehw'.,`.`anud(rhfm`kkhmfhlodqedbshud`rodbsnmsgdrdfldms`k
shdq-@bbnqchmfsnntqoqnonrdc`m`kxrhr+sghrqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmb`mad
qdoqdrdmsdc`radknv`esdqsgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc'vhsgsgd
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88
(127)
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Sgdnmkxsnmdqtkdsg`s`ookhdrsnsghro`ssdqmhrsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmf
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sghro`ssdqm+hshrqd`khydcpthsdrsq`hfgsenqv`qckx+`radknv9
(128)
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rteehw9
(129)
aL nd`amteL mbaLb
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"he bites meat"
3
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snmnknfhb`krodkkhmfqtkdenqhlodqedbshud`rodbs'rdd'436(adknv(-Vd`qdsgtr
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89
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o`ssdqmsgdqdenqd`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdnodq`shnmnentqsnmdl`oohmfqtkd9
(130)
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Sgdehqrsqtkdsnnodq`sdnmsghro`ssdqmhrsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmd
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(131)
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Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqVEQvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdsnmdkdrrRrxkk`akd
snsgdGsnmdnesgdudqaqnns-Sghrqdrtksrhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(132)
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Sgdehm`kqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdlnqogdld
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khmd(+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
90
(133)
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Rhmbd`kksgdsnmdrhmntqo`ssdqm`qd`rrnbh`sdcsnrnldrxkk`akdnq
nsgdq+sgdcnvmrsdosnmdqtkdcndrmns`ookx`mcvd`qdkdesvhsgsgd
enkknvhmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm9
(134)
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RvhsbghmfmnvsnudqarvhsgtmcdqkxhmfKkdwhb`ksnmdr+vdg`ud
dw`lokdrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf9
(135)
aL ngwKDYDL mbaLb
3
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4
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udqaqnns`mcsgdhlodqedbshuddbgnunvdkrteehw'.,—.`anudadb`trdne
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enkknvhmfudqaqnns+`rhmntqqdoqdrdms`shnmadknv9
91
(136)
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Vhsgsghrekn`shmfGsnmd`ssgdadfhmmhmfnentqo`ssdqm+sgdqhfgsv`qc,
cnbjhmfGsnmdlnqogdldqtkd`ookhdr+bg`mfhmfntqo`ssdqmsnsgdenkknvhmf9
(137)
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Rhmbdsgdudqahr`klnrs`kv`xroqdbdcdcax`rxkk`akd'!#!(`rrnbh`sdcsn`
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`rrnbh`sdcGsnmd`mcmdvkxekn`shmfKsnmdnesgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd+qdrtkshmf
hmsgdenkknvhmfo`ssdqm9
(138)
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Sghrekn`shmfKsnmdvghbgmnvoqdbdcdr`m`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdhr`eedbsdcax
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hmsgdenkknvhmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm9
(139)
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@mhcdmshb`ksnmdo`ssdqmb`madentmcnmudqarsdlrvghbg`qd
kdwhb`kkxchrxkk`ahb+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(140)
aL ndKimteL mbaLb
3
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"he reheats meat"
4
Sgdoqdrdmso`ssdqmcheedqreqnlsgdoqdbdchmfhmsg`ssgdudqarsdlhr
chrxkk`ahb`mcsgdhlodqedbshudrteehwhrsgdqdenqditrs`Ksnmdsnm`k
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rxkk`akd(`esdqsgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(141)
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adknv9
(142)
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Ctdsnsgdsxohb`koqdrdmbdne`Ksnmd`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdoqdbdchmf
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93
(143)
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Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdnmsghro`ssdqmhrntqVEQqtkdvghbg
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snmd`ssghronhmshmsgdcdqhu`shnm(+`radknv9
(144)
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RhmbdsgdKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhrrshkktm`rrnbh`sdc`ssghrlnldms
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nodq`sdr-Hs`rrnbh`sdrsgdehm`kKsnmdnentqo`ssdqmsnsgdkdesand
chr`rrnbh`sdrsgdRrxkk`akdeqnlsgdoqdbdchmfGsnmd+`rhmntq
qdoqdrdms`shnmadknv9
(145)
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Sgdehm`ksnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbg`f`hm
knvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg'sn1(`ssgdadfhmmhmfnentqo`ssdqm-
Sghrknvdqdcqdfhrsdqqdl`hmrhmok`bdsgqntfgnts+qdrtkshmfhm`knvdqdc
'sn3(ohsbgkdudkenqsgdKsnmdnesgdehm`krxkk`akd+`radknv9
94
(146)
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Sghrbnmbktcdrntq`m`kxrhrnelnmnrxkk`ahb`mcchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlr
vhsgansgqd`khrlncd`mchlodqedbshud`rodbs-Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdsgdhq
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Stqmhmfntq`ssdmshnmeqnlqd`khrsnhqqd`khrhlodqedbshudr+vdbnld
`bqnrrrdudq`kcdqhu`shnmrvgdqdsgdnqcdqhmfnelnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr
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udqaqnnsrentmchmsxohb`khqqd`khrhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(147)
aL geL zKaYMa mbaLb
3
3
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5
"he will be a meat-cutter"
(later today)
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdhreqnlsgdE0'snc`xetstqd(sdmrd-Ntq
Dmfkhrgfknrr`ssdlorsnbnmudxsgdetstqdg`ahst`kld`mhmfsg`sg`r
bnldsnad`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdrdhqqd`khrhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgd
'tmcdqkhmdc(udqacndrmnsg`udsgdqd`khrm`r`koqdehw`rchcsgdqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmrcdrbqhadcd`qkhdqhmsghrrdbshnm-Sgdudqacndrg`udsgd
dbgnunvdkrteehw+`mcsgdudqaqnnshransgoqdbdcdc`mcenkknvdcax
95
cnvmrsdoodcsnmdr-@bbnqchmfsnntq`m`kxrhr+sghrbnmrsqtbshnmb`mad
qdoqdrdmsdc`radknv`esdqntqsnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(148)
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Rhmbdmnmdnesgdsnmdqtkdr`ookxsnsghro`ssdqm+sgdmdwsqtkdsn
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snmdsnm`klnqogdldr+`KsnmdadenqdsgdGsnmdnesgdudqarsdl`mc`
GsnmdadenqdsgdKsnmdnesgdhlodqedbshudrteehw+`rqdoqdrdmsdcadknv9
(149)
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knvdqhmfsgdKsnmdsvnmnsbgdrsnohsbgkdudk'4(+adb`trdqdfhrsdq,
96
knvdqhmfhrbtltk`shud-Sgdrtqe`bdqdrtkshrsgtrsgdenkknvhmf9
(150)
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Sghrr`ldsnmdo`ssdqmb`madentmcnmchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlrrtbg`r
sgdnmdvhsgsgdsnmdkdrr.,sd.rteehwhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(151)
aL geL lKumtMe mbaLb
3
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"he will be a meat-biter"
5
(later today)
Sghro`ssdqmcheedqreqnlsgdoqdbdchmfhmsg`shsrs`qsrsgdcdqhu`shnm
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qdoqdrdmsdcnmntq`tsnrdfldms`kshdqr`radknv9
(152)
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@esdqsgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`roqnctbdcsgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqm+sgd
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97
sgdGsnmdnesgdudqa-Sgdqdrtkshrsgdenkknvhmf9
(153)
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Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkd
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chr`rrnbh`shmfsg`srxkk`akdeqnlsgdGsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(154)
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(155)
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qdfhrsdqsvhbd+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(156)
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Vdvhkkmnvrvhsbgsndw`lhmhmfsgdqdftk`qsnmdo`ssdqmrvghbg
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hlodqedbshud`rodbs+`rhmsgddw`lokdvhsg`kdwhb`klnmnrxkk`ahbqnns
adknv9
(157)
aL geL gwMDYMD mbaLb
3
3
4 5
"he will be a meat-pounder"
5
(later today)
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdknnjrkhjdsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnmnmbd
sgdhmhsh`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(158)
#
V
+
I
#
#
L
+
L
#
Rhmbdmnmdnesgdsnmdqtkdr`ookxsnsghro`ssdqm+sgdmdwsqtkdsn
nodq`sdhrsgdk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbghmrdqsrsvnonk`qsnmd
snm`klnqogdldr+`GsnmdadenqdsgdKsnmdnesgdudqaqnns`mc`mnsgdq
99
GsnmdadenqdsgdKsnmdnesgdhlodqedbshudrteehw+`radknv9
(159)
#
#
Ø
+
V
+
+
L
+
Ø
-[T
-[T
H
H
+
I
#
+
L
#
Sgdnmkxqdl`hmhmfqtkdvghbgl`x`ookxsnsghro`ssdqmhrntqk`sd
cnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqsvhbd-Rhmbdsghrknvdqhmf
nesgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqhrbtltk`shud+sgdKsnmdhrehqrsknvdqdcsnohsbg
kdudk'3(`mc`rdbnmcshldsnohsbgkdudk'4(+`radknv9
(160)
#
#
H
+
V
+
+
L
+
4
-
H
+
I
#
+
L
#
5
Sghrr`ldsnmdo`ssdqmb`m`krnadrddmvhsgKsnmdudqaqnnsrvghbg
g`udchrxkk`ahbrsdlr`rsgdqdrtksnesgd`cchshnmnesgdsnmdkdrrudqa
rteehw+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(161)
aL geL lMimtMe mbaLb
3
100
3
4
5
5
"he will be a meat-reheater"
(later today)
Rhmbdsghrudqarsdlg`rsgdkdwhb`kkxsnmdkdrr.,sd.rxkk`akd+hs`ood`qr
`radknv`esdqsgdhmhsh`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(162)
#
V
+
#
L
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
Sgdmdwsqtkdsn`ookxsnsghro`ssdqmhrsgdVEQvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgd
snmdkdrrRrxkk`akdsnsgdKsnmdnesgdudqaqnns-Sgdqdrtkshrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(163)
#
V
+
#
L
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmdnesgdhlodqedbshudrteehwsn
sgdRrxkk`akdvghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsg`srxkk`akdeqnlsgdKsnmd
oqduhntrkx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(164)
#
V
+
#
L
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
Nmbd`f`hm+hshrbqtbh`ksg`sntqk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdhmrdqsr
sgdsvnonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldrhmchb`shmf`mnql`khqqd`khrsnm`k
o`ssdqmnmkx`ssghrk`sdonhmshmsgdcdqhu`shnm+`rrgnvmadknv9
101
(165)
#
#
Ø
+
V
+
+
L
+
S
+
+
+
Ø
-[T
-[T
H
H
+
#
L
#
Sgdehqrsonk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhrgdqdqd`khydc`r`Gsnmd
oqdbdchmfsgdKsnmdnesgdudqaqnns-Sgdrdbnmconk`qsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldhrhmrdqsdchlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfsgdsnmdkdrrRrxkk`akdnesgd
udqarsdlatsoqdbdchmfsgdKsnmdnesgdhlodqedbshudrteehw-Rhmbd`kk
sgdnsgdqsnm`kqtkdrg`ud`kqd`cxnodq`sdc+sgdnmkxqtkdvghbgl`xrshkk
`eedbsntqo`ssdqmhrsgdk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgnmbd`f`hmknvdqrsgd
snm`kqdfhrsdqsvhbd+`rrddmhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(166)
#
#
H
+
V
+
+
L
+
4
-
S
+
+
+
H
+
#
L
#
5
Sgdoqdbdchmfsvnrdbshnmrg`udrgnvmsgdtmcdqkxhmfcdqhu`shnmrne
vg`srg`kkadqdedqqdcsn`rsgd!qdftk`q!nq!dwodbsdc!snmdrenqqd`khr
`mchqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr'k`adkdc!Q!enqqd`khr`mc!H!enqhqqd`khrhmntq
snmdo`ssdqmbg`qs`ssgdadfhmmhmfnerdbshnm1-2-1-`anud(-@mx
102
cduh`shnmreqnlsgdrdQ`mcHo`ssdqmr`qdbnmrhcdqdclnqdl`qjdc-Sgdrd
tmtrt`ksnm`ko`ssdqmr`qd`kv`xrsgdqdrtksnernldrodbhehblnqogn,
snmnmknfhb`kqtkd+`mcsgdx`qdd`bgchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmsgdhqstqmhmsgd
enkknvhmfrdbshnm-
103
2.3.3. With tense markers
Sgdenkknvhmfbg`qs'rdd'71(`anud(hrqdod`sdcadknvsndm`akdsgd
qd`cdqsnqdldladqvghbgudqa`kbnmrsqtbshnmrs`jdmnql`kqd`khr'Q(nq
hqqd`khr'H(snmdo`ssdqmr`mcvghbgs`jdsgdhqnvmhchnrxmbq`shbsnmd
o`ssdqmr'k`adkkdc!w!hmsgdbg`qs(9
(167)
Revised Realis/Irrealis Tone Distribution
Features
P4
P3
x/R
-perf
+real
-prog
-perf
+real
+prog
+perf
+real
P2
P1
Ø
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/x
x/x
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
x/R
+perf
-real
104
F1
F2
F3
F4
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
-perf
-real
-prog
x/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
-perf
-real
+prog
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
Sgdoqdbdchmfsvnrdbshnmrnesghrchrrdqs`shnmg`uddw`lhmdchm
cds`hksgdsnm`kcdqhu`shnmrne`kksgdmnql`kqd`khr`mchqqd`khrsnmd
o`ssdqmr-Hshrmnvsgds`rjnesgdoqdrdmsrdbshnmsndw`lhmd`rvdkksgd
u`qhntrhchnrxmbq`shbsnmdo`ssdqmr'rxlankhydcaxw&rhmsgdoqdbdchmf
bg`qs(-Sgdqd`cdqhrqdedqqdcsn@oodmchwAenqlnqdcds`hkdcbg`qsr
vghbgrgnvsgd`bst`krtqe`bdsnmdrqd`khydcnmG`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsr
enq`kksgdrdbnmrsqtbshnmr+vgdsgdqsgdxbnldeqnlqdftk`qqd`khrnq
hqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnq`qdsgdqdrtksnesgdhchnrxmbq`shbqtkdrchrbtrrdc
hmsghrrdbshnm-D`bgnesgdtmhptdsnmdo`ssdqmrhmchb`sdchmsgdbg`qs`qd
fdmdq`sdcaxrdo`q`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr+`kknevghbg`qd
enql`khydchmbg`osdq3adknv-Ntqoqdrdmshmsdqdrsvhkkadsns`jdsgd
qdrtksrnesgdrdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr`mcenkknvsgdhqoqnfqdrr
sgqntfgntssgdhqcdqhu`shnmrtmshksgdhqqdrodbshudognmdshbqd`khy`shnmr`qd
`bghdudc-
Vdvhkkadfhmntqdw`lhm`shnmnesgdrdqtkdraxknnjhmf`ssgnrd
`rrnbh`sdcvhsgodqedbshud`rodbs-Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsbkd`qkxrgnvrsg`s
Mfxdla——m`kv`xrqd`khydr`mnm,etstqdhmchb`shudrdmsdmbdnm
rnldsghmfnsgdqsg`msgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrvgdmdudqsg`srdmsdmbdhr
ansgodqedbshud`mcpositive-Sgtrvd`kv`xrg`udsgdrl`kkw&rsnsgd
kdesnesgdrk`rgl`qj`anudenqsgdonrhshudodqedbshudrdmsdmbdr+dudm
sgntfgsgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudrdmsdmbdrsnsgdqhfgsnesgdrk`rgl`qj
105
`kv`xrg`udsgdmnql`kqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqm'Q(-
Rhmbdsgdrdmnm,etstqdonrhshudodqedbshudhmchb`shudrdmsdmbdr`qd
`lnmfsgdlnrseqdptdmskxtrdchmsgdbntqrdnedudqxc`xudqa`k
hmsdq`bshnm+hshr`oo`qdmssg`sMfxdla——mrod`jdqr`qd`akdsnqdldladq
`mcqdoqnctbdsgdtmhptdsnm`ko`ssdqmrsg`s`qdrodbh`ksnsgdonrhshud
odqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmned`bgsdmrd-Sgdrdtmtrt`ksnm`ko`ssdqmr`qdmns
nmkxlnqdghfgkxl`qjdcsg`msgdqdftk`qqd`khro`ssdqmr+sgdx`qdlnrs
khjdkx`krnnenkcdqghrsnqhb`kuhms`fd-Sgdrdnkcdqo`ssdqmr`qdsgdqdenqd
l`hms`hmdcsnc`xnmkxhmghfgkxqdrsqhbsdcfq`ll`shb`kdmuhqnmldmsr-
Sgdehqrsodqedbshudonrhshudmnm,etstqdsnmdo`ssdqmsg`svdrg`kk
dw`lhmdhrsg`snesgdO1sdmrd+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(168) aL kaL zaLY mbaLb
3
3
3
3
"he cut the meat"
(yesterday)
Sgd`amnql`ksnm`kbg`q`bsdqhrshbnesgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdhrsg`ssgd
udqaqnnsvghbgg`r`mtmcdqkxhmfkdwhb`kGsnmdhrqd`khydcognmdshb`kkx
nm`Ksnmd'ohsbgkdudk2(-Sgdnmkxsnmdqtkdsndkhlhm`sdGsnmdr
bnlokdsdkx'hsb`mmnsitrsadchr`rrnbh`sdc`rsgdmhsvntkccnvmrsdosgd
enkknvhmfKsnmd(hrntqqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkd-Vdg`udsgdqdenqdonrhsdc`
lnqogdldbnms`hmhmfansg`K`mc`onk`qsnmdoqdbdchmfsgdudqarsdl
106
vhsgsgdKsnmdadhmf`rrnbh`sdcsnbothsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akdandsgd
oqdbdchmfrxkk`akd-Rhmbdvdonrhssghrlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'452(
adknv(snnodq`sdadenqdntqsnmdqtkdr+ntqoqdrdmsGsnmdudqaqnns
vntkcknnj`radknv`esdqnodq`shnmnesgdl`oohmfqtkd`mcsgdO1
onrhshudodqedbshudhmchb`shudlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'vhsg!#!sn
hmchb`sdsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfrxkk`akd(9
(169)
#
#
#
Ø
L
+
V
#
+
H
#
L
Hshrbqtbh`ksg`ssgdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbghmrdqsrsghr
`cchshnm`kKsnmdhmsgdqd`khrsnmdlnqogdldadenqdsgdudqarsdl`krn
cq`vrsgdsvnmdv`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrrgnvm`anud-Sgdrdbnmcsnmdnesgd
lnqogdldhr`bst`kkxsgdqd`khronk`qsnmdatshshrqd`khydc`r`Ksnmd
`anudhmnqcdqsnadnoonrhsdnesgdenkknvhmfGsnmd'nesgdudqaqnns(-Hs
hrmnvbqtbh`ksg`ssgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqmeddcrntqqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkd+
vghbghsb`mcnhevdrkhfgskxqduhrdsgdqtkd'ehqrsrs`sdchm'40(`anud(+
`radknv9
107
(170) Rule 6’:
Rise-Deletion
#
#
L (T) H
/
L
Ø
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdcheedqreqnlhsroqduhntrudqrhnmaxsgd`cchshnmne
`mnoshnm`kekn`shmfsnmd'S(`mcsgde`bssg`ssgdqtkdmnv`ookhdr
vgdmdudqsgdmdwssnmdhr`Ksnmd-Sgd`cchshnmnesgdekn`shmfsnmd'S(hr
`qduhrhnmsg`shrrhlhk`qsnsgdqduhrhnmnentqlds`sgdrhrqtkd'rdd'51(
`anud(vghbg`kknvdcenq`m`cchshnm`kekn`shmfGsnmd-@cchmfsgd
rxkk`akd@enqsgdKsnmdmntmbk`rroqdehwnesgdenkknvhmfnaidbsvghbg
sqhffdqrsgdqduhrdcqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkd+ntqo`ssdqmhrbg`mfdchmsnsgd
enkknvhmf9
(171)
#
#
#
L
L
+
V
#
A
+
+
H
#
L
+
Ø
Rhmbdsgdcnvmrsdoqtkdcndrmns`ookxsnsghro`ssdqmhmhsroqdrdms
enql+ntqrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhrpthsdrsq`hfgsenqv`qc+`radknv9
108
(172)
#
#
+
#
L
L
V
+
#
#
3
Rtbg`Ksnmdqd`khy`shnmne`mtmcdqkxhmfGsnmdudqaqnnsb`m`krn
nbbtqhesgdudqarsdlhrchrxkk`ahb+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(173) aL kaL luLmteL mbaLb
3
3
3
3
"he bit the meat"
3
(yesterday)
@cchmfsgdrxkk`akdRsnhmchb`sdntqsnmdkdrr.,sd.udqarteehw+ntq
o`ssdqm`ood`qr`radknv`esdq`ookhb`shnmneansgsgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkd
`mcntqO1onrhshudodqedbshudlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd9
(174)
#
#
#
Ø
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
S
#
#
L
Nmbd`f`hm+vdrgnvsgdKsnmdoqdehwnesgdenkknvhmfnaidbsvghbg
sqhffdqrsgdqduhrdcqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkd+cdkdshmfsgdGsnmdhmsgdo`ssdqmhm
sgdenkknvhmfl`mmdq9
109
(175)
#
#
#
L
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
S
#
A
+
#
L
+
Ø
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqVEQqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdsnmdkdrr
Rrxkk`akdsnsgdehqrssnmdnmhsrkdes-Sgdqdrtkshrsgdenkknvhmf9
(176)
#
#
#
+
L
L
V
+
+
S
+
#
#
Vhsgd`bgrxkk`akdmnv`rrnbh`sdcsnnmdKsnmd+sgdognmdshb
qd`khy`shnmhrpthsdrsq`hfgsenqv`qc+`radknv9
(177)
#
#
#
+
L
L
+
V
+
+
S
#
#
3 -3
Rvhsbghmfmnvsnudqaqnnsrvhsgkdwhb`kKsnmdr+vdehmc
lnmnrxkk`ahbdw`lokdrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf9
(178) aL kaL gwTDY mbaLb
3
3
34
4
"he ground the meat"
(yesterday)
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrgnvrsg`stmcdqkxhmfKsnmdudqaqnnsr`qd
110
qd`khydcognmdshb`kkxnm`knv,cnvmrsdoodc,knvsnmd'fkhcdeqnlohsbg
kdudk2sn3nmsgdtmcdqkhmdcudqaqnns`anud(-@cchmfsgdr`ldbnlokdw
K`mconk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdldsg`svdchcvhsgsgdGsnmdudqaqnnsr
`anudqdrtksrhmsgdenkknvhmf`esdqansgsgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkd`mcsgd
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`khmrdqshnmqtkdg`udnodq`sdc9
(179)
#
#
#
Ø
H
+
V
#
+
L
#
L
RhmbdsgdudqaqnnssnmdhrKgdqd+sgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfonk`q
snmdhrqd`khydc`r`Gsnmd-Rhmbdsgdqd`qdmnrhmfkd,snmdsnm`k
lnqogdldrsneddcntqkdesv`qc,`mcqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfqtkdr+sgdmdws
qtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdq
nmdmnsbg'eqnl2sn3(adb`trdnesgdekn`shmfGsnmdoqdbdchmfsgd
`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd+`radknv9
(180)
#
#
#
L
3
H
+
V
#
+
L
#
4
Rhmbdsgdudqarsdlhrlnmnrxkk`ahb+ansgsgdsnmdkdudkr2`mc3`qd
qd`khydcnmsgdr`ldrxkk`akd`anud-
111
Sgdrdr`ldsvnkdudkr`qdqd`khydcnmrdo`q`sdrxkk`akdrvgdmdudqsgd
udqarsdlhrchrxkk`ahb+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(181) aL kaL l`bmtMe mbaLb
3
3
3
4
"he reheated the meat"
4
(yesterday)
Hmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokd+sgdcnvmrsdo'snkdudk3(nbbtqradsvddm
sgdehqrsrxkk`akdnesgdtmcdqkhmdcudqa`mcsgdkdwhb`kkxsnmdkdrrrxkk`akd
.,sd.-Sgdcdqhu`shnmnesghrsnmdo`ssdqmhrrhlhk`qsnsgdk`rsvhsgsgd
`cchshnmnesgdRrxkk`akdentmcadknv9
(182)
#
#
#
Ø
H
+
V
+
+
L
+
S
#
#
L
@ssghronhms+ntqVEQqtkdnodq`sdr+`rrnbh`shmfsgdsnmdkdrrrxkk`akd
RsnsgdKsnmdnesgdudqaqnns-Bqtbh`kkx+gnvdudq+sghrr`ldVEQqtkd
`krnchr`rrnbh`sdrsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd'U(eqnlsg`sr`ldKsnmd`rhm
sgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(183)
#
#
#
L
H
+
V
+
+
L
+
S
#
#
Hsltrsadonhmsdcntssg`sntqoqdkhlhm`qxudqrhnmnesgdVEQqtkd
112
'rdd'83(`anud(vntkc`rrnbh`sdsgdsnmdkdrrRrxkk`akdsnsgdKsnmdnm
hsrkdes+atshsvntkcmnschr`rrnbh`sdsg`sKsnmdeqnlrxkk`akdU+`rvd
g`udhmchb`sdcltrss`jdok`bd-VdltrssgdqdenqdqduhrdntqVEQqtkdsn
chr`rrnbh`sdsgdsnmdbgnrdmax`enqldqkxsnmdkdrrrxkk`akdeqnlnsgdq
rxkk`akdroqnuhcdcsg`ssgnrdnsgdqrxkk`akdr`qd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsnxds
`mnsgdqsnmd-Sgdqtkdnauhntrkxcndrmnsv`mssnbqd`sdnsgdqsnmdkdrr
rxkk`akdrhmsgdoqnbdrrne`rrnbh`shmfdwhrshmfsnmdkdrrrxkk`akdr-Sgd
qdrtksnentqlnchehdcVEQqtkdltrsadsg`svgdmdudq`snmdkdrr
rxkk`akd!atlorhmsn!`rxkk`akdvhsg`bnlokdw'h-d-lnqdsg`mnmd(snmd+
sgdbnlokdwsnmdhraqnjdmcnvmhmsnhsrbnmrshstdmso`qsr+d`bgo`qsadhmf
kdesvhsghsrqdrodbshud`rrnbh`sdcrxkk`akd-VdsgdqdenqdqduhrdntqVEQ
'ehqrsrs`sdchm'83(`anud(+`radknv9
(184) Rule 8’: Well-formedness Rule (WFR)
(#) +
(T)
T
+
#
+
+
Condition: When a toneless syllable associates to the
first tone on its left, it only disassociates
that tone from another syllable if that syllable
is already associated to yet another tone.
Sghrqtkdr`xrsg`svgdmdudq`snmdkdrrrxkk`akdhrentmc'hmsgdkdes,
sn,qhfgs`ookhb`shnmnesgdsnmdqtkdr(+hshr`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdehqrssnmd
entmcnmhsrkdes+chr`rrnbh`shmf`rvdkksg`sr`ldsnmdeqnl`mxnsgdq
113
rxkk`akdrvhsgvghbghslhfgs`kqd`cxad`rrnbh`sdchesgnrdrxkk`akdr
vntkcqds`hmxds`mnsgdqsnmd-
NmbdsgdqduhrdcVEQqtkdg`rnodq`sdc+sgdnmkxnsgdqqtkdsn`eedbs
ntqo`ssdqmhrsgdk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdqnmd
mnsbgadsvddmsgdsvnrxkk`akdr+`radknv9
(185)
#
#
#
L
H
3
+
V
+
+
L
+
-
4
S
#
#
SgdrdbnmcodqedbshudO2onrhshudmnm,etstqdsnmdo`ssdqmsg`svdrg`kk
dw`lhmdhrsg`snesgdsdmrd+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(186) aL laL zaPY mbaLb
3
3 13
"he cut the meat”
3
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdg`r`G,Ke`kkhmfsnmdnmhsrtmcdqkhmdcudqa
qnns-Sghrjhmcne`rtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhr`bbnlokhrgdcaxhmrdqshmf`m
associatedKsnmd`esdqsgdudqarsdl+`snmdmnshmrdqsdctmshk`esdqsgd
nodq`shnmnentqmnql`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdvghbgqdrtksrhmsgdenkknvhmf9
114
(187)
#
#
L
+
V
#
+
H
#
Hshrnmkx`esdqsgdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc+atsadenqdsgdatkjnentq
snmdqtkdrnodq`sd+sg`sntqtmhptdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdhmrdqsr`Ksnmd
hlldch`sdkx`esdqsgdudqarsdlhesgdrdmsdmbdhronrhshudodqedbshudO2'rdd
'451(adknv(-Sgdqdrtksnesghrqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(188)
#
#
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
#
Ø
#
L
Hshrbqtbh`ksg`ssgd`cchshnm`kKsnmdhr`ccdc`esdqsgdudqarsdl`mchr
`rrnbh`sdcby the same rulesnsgdk`rsrxkk`akdnesgdr`ldudqarsdl-
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snmdlnqogdldqtkd`rrnbh`sdrsgdqd`khronk`qsnmd'KsnmdadenqdsgdGsnmdne
sgdudqaqnns(snsgdehqrsrxkk`akd'#(oqdbdchmfsgdudqa+`radknv9
(189)
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Rhmbdntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdcndrmns`ookxsnsghro`qshbtk`qo`ssdqm'`kksgd
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115
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(190)
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Sgdr`ldjhmcneo`ssdqmb`madqd`khydcnmchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlr+`r
hmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(191) aL laL luJmteL mbaLb
3
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"he bit the meat"
3
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(192)
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116
(193)
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nmbd`f`hmnodq`sdr`radknv9
(194)
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cdqhu`shnm+sgdRrxkk`akdg`r`kqd`cxaddm`rrnbh`sdcvhsg`snmdaxntq
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mns`ookxdhsgdq+sgdehm`krtqe`bdqdrtkshrsgdenkknvhmf9
(195)
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Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdo`q`kkdkO2onrhshudodqedbshuddw`lokdrvgdqd
sgdudqaqnnsg`r`kdwhb`kKsnmd+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
117
(196) aL laL gwQDY mbaLb
3
3
24
"he ground the meat"
4
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o`ssdqm`ood`qr`radknv`esdqntqsnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(197)
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(198)
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118
(199)
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lds`sgdrhydrsgdG`mcKsnmdr`radknv9
(200)
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adfhmmhmfnesgdudqaqnns+`radknv9
(201)
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Sgdr`ldjhmcneo`ssdqmb`madqd`khydcnmchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlr+`r
hmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokd9
(202) aL laL lKimteL mbaLb
3
3
2
4
"he reheated the meat"
4
119
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`ood`qr`radknv`esdq`ookhb`shnmnesgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkd9
(203)
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Nmbd`f`hm+sgdmdwsqtkdsn`ookxhrsgdO2onrhshudodqedbshudlnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbg`f`hmhmrdqsr`Ksnmd`esdqsgdudqarsdland`rrnbh`sdr
sg`sKsnmdsnsgdk`rsrxkk`akdnesg`srsdl+`radknv9
(204)
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(205)
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120
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(206)
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(207)
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121
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dw`lokdrhmbktcdlnmnrxkk`ahbG`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsrqdrodbshudkx9
(208)
aL zaNY mbMab
3
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"he (just) cut the meat"
4
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3
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4
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(209)
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(210)
+
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# L/H + H/L #
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nemtladqrdudmetqsgdqadknv(9
(211)
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# L/H + H/L #
3
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dw`lokdr9
(212)
aL luLmteN mbMab
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"he (just) bit the meat"
4
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3
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4
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snmdkdrrudqarteehw'R(nmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq+`radknv9
(213)
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Nmbdsgdrtaidbsl`qjdqsnmdg`raddm`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd
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sgdb`rdneK`mcGsnmdrqdrodbshudkx+`radknv9
(214)
+
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S
#
#
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqqduhrdcVEQ'rdd'073(`anud(vghbg
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124
sgdrdGsnmdreqnlsgdrxkk`akdrsg`ssgdxvdqd`rrnbh`sdcsn+`radknv9
(215)
+
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# L/H + H/L +
#
#
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trdc`rgdckhmdr'`mcsgdrdbnmcqnvnemtladqr(9
(216)
+
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# L/H + H/L +
3
3
V
-3
-31
1
S
#
#
-
@mnsgdqdmuhqnmldmsvgdqdsgdmnql`ksnm`kbnmsq`rsadsvddmG`mc
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bnmrsqtbshnmr-VdrdkdbssgdO1onrhshuddw`lokdr`rbg`q`bsdqhrshbnesghr
fqnto+`mcdw`lhmdehqrssgdlnmnrxkk`ahbudqaqnnsr+`rentmchmsgd
enkknvhmfdw`lokdr9
125
(217) aL kaLa nzMaY mbaLb
3
3
4
4
"he was a meat-cutter"
(yesterday)
aL kaLa ngwMDY mbaLb "he was a meat-pounder"
3
3
4
4
(yesterday)
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdr`qdtmtrt`khml`mxv`xr-A`rdcnmvg`svd
g`udrddmneqd`khrlncd`mchlodqedbshud`rodbs+hs`ood`qrsg`s`
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onrhshnm`ssgdadfhmmhmfnesgd'tmcdqkhmdc(udqa+sgdsxohb`kKsnmddbgn
unvdkudqarteehwsg`shmchb`sdrhlodqedbshud`rodbshrmns`ss`bgdcsnsgd
dmcnesgdudqa-Hmrsd`c+sghrrteehwrddlrsng`udaddmsq`mredqqdceqnl
sgdudqarsdlsnsgdsdmrdl`qjdq'trt`kkx`rgnqs.j`∆.enqO1(-Sghrjhmc
ne`sq`mrenql`shnmvntkcdwok`hmansgsgd`ardmbdnesgddbgnunvdk
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lnqogdldqtkdr-Sgdehqrsqtkdvntkcnodq`sdudqxd`qkxhmsgdcdqhu`shnm
`mcvntkc`ss`bgsgdmnql`kKsnmdhlodqedbshudrteehwsnsgdsdmrd
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126
vntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdqsgdl`oohmfqtkdg`cnodq`sdc9
(218)
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sgdx`qdmnknmfdqrhfmhehb`ms`ssghronhmshmsgdcdqhu`shnm(+`radknv9
(219)
#
#
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V
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#
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`rrnbh`sdcsnmdsn`Ksnmd+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(220)
#
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(T)
T
#
H
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127
Sgdqdrtkshmfo`ssdqmg`r`m`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdoqdbdcdcax`m
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snm`kqdfhrsdqaxnmdmnsbg'sn3(+`radknv9
(221)
#
#
H
V
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L
#
4
Hsrgntkcadrsqdrrdcsg`ssgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnmg`chcdmshb`kqdrtksr
enqansgG`mcKsnmdlnmnrxkk`ahbudqaqnnsr-
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sgdchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlrrgnvmadknv9
(222) aL kaLa ndMumteL mbaLb
3
3
4
4
aL kaLa ndMimteL mbaLb
3
3
4
4
"he was a meat-biter"
(yesterday)
"he was a meat-reheater"
(yesterday)
Nmbd`f`hm+sgddbgnunvdkhlodqedbshudrteehwg`raddmsq`mredqqdc
snsgdsdmrdl`qjdqeqnlsgdudqarsdl`mcsgddmshqdudqahrqd`khydcnm`
cnvmrsdoodcKsnmd-Ntqsnm`kcdqhu`shnm`f`hmrs`qsrvhsg`ekn`shmf
onk`qsnmdoqdbdchmfsgd`rrnbh`sdcudqasnmd`esdqsgdsnmdl`oohmfqtkd
g`rnodq`sdc+`radknv9
128
(223)
#
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Sgdoqdbdchmfo`ssdqmcheedqreqnlsgdbnqqdronmchmfo`ssdqmnesgd
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sgdbntqrdnesgdsnmdqtkdraxntqqduhrdcVEQqtkd+kd`uhmf`o`ssdqmkhjdsgd
enkknvhmf`esdqsgdsnmdqtkdrg`udnodq`sdc9
(224)
#
#
(T)
V
+
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+
S
#
#
Nmbd`f`hm+`esdqsgdl`inqhsxnesnmdqtkdrg`udnodq`sdc+sgdrodbh`kO1
`mcO2lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd`ookhdrsnntqo`ssdqmxhdkchmfsgdenkknvhmf9
(225)
#
#
V
+
(T)
T
+
H
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#
RhmbdsgdqdrtkshmfKsnmdhrbnmmdbsdcsnansgrxkk`akdrnesgdudqa+sgd
r`ldknvdqdcohsbgkdudkhrqd`khydcnmansg+vhsgansgnesgdladhmfnmdmnsbg
knvdqsg`m`mnql`kKsnmdadb`trdnesgdcnvmrsdoqtkd+vghbgqdrtksrhmsgd
enkknvhmf9
129
(226)
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4-4
Sgdmdwssgqddo`ssdqmrvghbgvdvhkkdw`lhmd`qdqd`khydcnmsgd
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Sgdsgqddbnmrsqtbshnmrhmenbtrgdqd`qdsgdenkknvhmf9
(227)
Realis
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- positive perfective P4.
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- positive realis progressive imperfective zero.
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eqnlsgdydqnsdmrdrgnvsgdtmtrt`kbg`mfdneqd`khrsnhqqd`khrsnmd
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onrhshudrdmsdmbd-Vdoqnonrdsng`mckdsgdsgqddbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg
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131
udqaqnns+vdehmcdw`lokdrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf9
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(230)
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(232)
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(235)
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(236)
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(237)
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(238)
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(240)
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(241)
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(243)
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(244)
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(249)
Today Past Tense Marker
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(250)
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qdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkdsgqddrdo`q`sdshldr+knvdqhmfsgdqdfhrsdqnmd
mnsbgd`bgshldvghbgxhdkcrsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmrgnvmadknv9
(286) #
S
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
#
3
-
3
-
158
H
#
P
#
#
L
#
4
-
L
+
V
+
+
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+
3
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+
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#
6
Sghrbnmbktcdrntq`m`kxrhrnesgnrdbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbglnchex
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.md∆.-Mnvvdb`mdw`lhmdsgd`ksdqm`shudoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqhmqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmr+.rrdæ∫.+vghbgb`mdhsgdqqdok`bdnqnbbtqvhsgsgd
qdftk`qoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.md∆.-Gnvdudq+rhmbd.rrdæ∫.hrqd`khr+hs
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rhmfkdqd`khrqnvhmsgdenkknvhmfbg`qs9
(287)
Realis Progressive /sse=d/ Tone Distribution
P4
P3
P2
H’/H’
H’/H’
H’/H’
Features
-perf
+real
+prog
P1
H’/H’
Ø
Futures
’H/H’
@rrtlhmfsg`ssgdqdftk`qtmodqstqadcsnm`ko`ssdqmneZrrdæ∫\hr`G
snmdenkknvdcax`cnvmrsdoed`stqd+vdb`me`bsnqntssgnrdo`ssdqmr
kd`uhmfnmkxnmddwbdoshnm`ko`ssdqm'sgdonrhshudoqdrdmsoqnfqdrrhud(hm
vghbgsgdsnmdg`raddmodqstqadc'cnvmrsdoadenqdsgdGsnmd(+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfbg`qs9
159
'177(Qd`khrOqnfqdrrhud.rrdæ∫.OdqstqadcSnmdChrsqhatshnm
Features
P4
P3
P2
P1
-perf
+real
+prog
Ø
Futures
’H/
Hmsgdoqdbdchmfrdbshnm+ctqhmfntqchrbtrrhnmnesgdtmtrt`kO0sdmrd
l`qjdqvghbg`krnhrqd`khydcvhsg`Gsnmdenkknvdcax`cnvmrsdoodc
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tmcdqkxhmfl`qjdqand`k`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbglnchehdr
sg`sl`qjdq-Sgdkdwhb`kdmsqxenqsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqvhkk
sgdqdenqdadsgdenkknvhmf'vhsgsgdrxlank!Q!hmchb`shmfsgdl`qjdqnm
sgdrxkk`ahbshdq(9
(289)
Realis Progressive Marker
#
R
#
#
H L
#
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdsnmdrnesghrbnlokdwl`qjdq`qd`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgd
rxkk`akdhmsgdkdwhb`kdmsqxrhmbdntqsnmdl`oohmfqtkdvntkcmns
`rrnbh`sdansgsnmdrvhsgsgdr`ldrxkk`akdnmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq-Axld`mr
nerhlhk`qcdqhu`shnmr+sgdoqdbdchmfl`qjdq`knmfvhsghsr`rrnbh`sdc
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdqdrtkshmsgdenkknvhmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmr+
160
hmbktchmfsgdq`qd'tmcdqkhmdc(cntakd,cnvmrsdoodcGsnmdnmsgdudqa
qnns9
(290) aL laL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb
3
3
1
2 4
"he isn’t cutting the meat"
4
aL laL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb "he isn’t pounding the meat"
3
3
1
3 5
5
Sgdehqrsdw`lokd`anudrgnvrsgdcnvmrsdo`esdqsgdqd`khr
oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqadhmfqd`khydcnmsgdudqaqnns-Sgdrdbnmcdw`lokd
rgnvrsgdr`ldkdwhb`kcnvmrsdocntakhmftovhsg`cdqhudccnvmrsdonm
`m'tmcdqkhmdc(Ksnmdudqaqnnssnoqnctbd`cntakd,cnvmrsdoodcGsnmd-
Sgdqd`khsxsg`shshrhme`bs`cntakd,cnvmrsdoodcGsnmd`mcmns`
mnql`kKsnmdhrrgnvmaxsgdognmdshbkdudk'4(nesgdenkknvhmfKsnmd
udqarteehw-Ntqqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq`mchsrenkknvhmf'tmcdqkhmdc(
udqaqnns`anudvntkcadfhmsgdhqcdqhu`shnm`radknv9
(291)
#
R
#
#
H L
#
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
@ssghrshld+oqnbddchmfeqnlkdessnqhfgsenqntqmnql`ksnmdqtkdr+
sgdGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldvntkccnbjsnsgdqhfgsvghkdchr`rrnbh`shmf
sgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdudqaqnns+`radknv9
161
(292)
#
R
#
#
H L
#
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
Rhmbdntqqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'Q(dmcrvhsg`m`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd`s
sghronhmshmsgdcdqhu`shnm+sgdmnvchr`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdeqnlsgdudqaqnns
rxkk`akd'U(hreqnmsdcaxsgdlds`sgdrhrqtkd+`radknv9
(293)
#
R
#
#
H L
#
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
Hshr`ssghronhmssg`sntqk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdnodq`sdrnmsgdqd`khr
oqnfqdrrhudrxkk`akd'R(+bg`mfhmfsgdehm`k`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdsn`onk`qsnmd`mc
chr`rrnbh`shmfsghronk`qsnmdeqnlsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudrxkk`akd-Nmbd`f`hm+
sgdonk`qsnmd',√S(adbnldr`Ksnmdrhmbdhshrrodbhehdc`radhmfnoonrhsdne
sgdehqrsassociatedsnmdnmhsrqhfgs-Sghrlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdsgtr
`bbnlokhrgdrsgdenkknvhmf9
(294)
#
R
#
#
H L
#
-[T
L
162
+
L H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
#
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snmd-Sghrhrbg`mfdcaxntqqduhrdccnvmrsdoqtkdhmsn`double,
cnvmrsdo'nmdenqd`bgekn`shmfonk`qsnmd(vghbgknvdqrsgdsnm`k
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qnns-Sgdrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhrsgdqdenqdsgdenkknvhmf9
(295)
#
R
#
+
#
H L
#
L H
1
-
3
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
#
-
5
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`mc'2(`anud`qdhighsnmdr+`mnardqu`shnmbnmehqldcaxsgdenkknvhmf
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q`qdbn,nbbtqqdmbdnesvnekn`shmfrhlhk`qsnmdroqdbdchmf`m`rrnbh`sdc
snmdnenoonrhsdpt`khsx-Ekn`shmfsnmdrnertbgpt`khsxnmkxbnld
snfdsgdqhlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfdhsgdqnesvnfq`ll`shb`kl`qjdqr9sgdO0
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l`qjdqrvghbgtmcdqfnsgdk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbgbg`mfdr`
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163
oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnm+rgnvmsnfdsgdqvhsghsrsnm`kkx!qdftk`q!
mdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsadknv9
(296) aJ ssKe nzaJYaL mbaLb
1
2
2 4
"he is cutting the meat"
4
aL teL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t cutting the meat"
3
3
1
2 4
4
2
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrb`m`krnqdbdhud`m`cchshnm`koqnfqdrrhud
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odqstqadc+dudmsgntfgsgdl`qjdqhrenkknvdcax`Ksnmd+`radknv9
(297) aJ ssKe neL nzaJYaL mbaLb
1
2
4
2 4
(same glosses as above)
4
aL teL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
3
3
1
4
2 4
4
2
Sgdtmtrt`ksnm`kodqstqa`shnmhmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrhrsg`ssgd
rtaidbsnesgdonrhshudrdmsdmbdadbnldr`Gsnmd`mcsgdcnvmrsdo
mnql`kkx`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqprecedessg`s
l`qjdqhmrsd`cneenkknvhmfhs-Hsvntkc`ood`qsg`ssghrhchnrxmbq`shb
ed`stqdnesgdMfxdla——mudqa`kogq`rdb`madrsadg`mckdc
164
rxmbgqnmhb`kkxaxonrhshmf`m`cchshnm`klnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd-Sgd
hmotssnrtbg`qtkdvntkcadrdmsdmbdrvhsgsgdenkknvhmfjhmcne
tmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqd9
(298)
#
S
#
R
#
#
L
#
H L
#
L
+
V
+
I
#
+
H
+
L
#
Sgdnmkxsnmdqtkdsn`ookxsnsghrrsqtbstqdhrsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfK
snmdsnm`klnqgodldqtkd+vghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdekn`shmfKsnmdsnsgdehqrs
rxkk`akd'Q(nmhsrkdesvghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgd'K(snmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdc
sgdqd+`radknv9
(299)
#
S
#
R
#
#
L
#
H L
#
L
+
V
+
I
#
+
H
+
L
#
Mdws+aftersgdsnmdqtkdrg`udnodq`sdc+vdvntkconrhs`k`sd
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'457(adknv(vghbgvntkccdkdsdbnlokdsdkx
sgdrtaidbsoqnmntm&rsnmd'K(+qd`rrnbh`sdsgdGsnmdnesgdqd`khr
oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'Q(snsgdmnvsnmdkdrrrtaidbsoqnmntm'R(+`mc
bnmudqssgdehm`k`rrnbh`sdcsnmdnesgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'Q(sn`
Gsnmd+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
165
(300)
#
S
#
R
#
#
L
#
H L
#
Ø
L
+
V
+
I
#
+
H
+
L
#
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H
Sgdo`ssdqmhmptdrshnmhrmnvqd`khydcvhsgsgdtmtrt`krtqe`bd
o`ssdqmnesghro`qshbtk`qbnmrsqtbshnm+vhsgsgdcnvmrsdoed`stqd
oqdbdchmfhmrsd`cneenkknvhmfsgdsnmdnmsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudrxkk`akd
'R(+`radknv9
(301)
#
#
S
#
R
#
#
H L
#
1-
+
V
+
I
#
H
+
H
+
L
#
2
-
2
-
4
-
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqrdbshnmnmsgdhchnrxmbq`shbsnm`kodqstqa`shnmr
sg`snbb`rhnm`kkxrgnvtovhsgdhsgdqnentqsvnoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqr-
166
2.3.5. With negative markers
Svnrdo`q`sdmdf`shudl`qjdqrnbbtqhmMfxdla——m9sgdmnql`k.sd∆.
l`qjdq`mcsgdtmtrt`konrhshudqd`khrodqedbshudydqn'O/(mdf`shud
l`qjdq.j`∆.-RhmbdsgdO/.j`∆.nmkxnbbtqrhmnmdbnmrsqtbshnmhmvghbghsr
rtqe`bdsnmdhr`kv`xrK+vd`rrtldsghrKsnmdsnadhsrtmcdqkxhmf
kdwhb`ksnmd`mccnmnsmddcsndw`lhmd`mxsnm`kodqstqa`shnmr-Sgd.sd∆.
mdf`shud+nmsgdnsgdqg`mc+nbb`rhnm`kkxtmcdqfndr`bg`mfdnehsrsnmd
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'`mc.j`∆.hmo`qdmsgdrdr(l`qjdqr`qdrgnvmhmsgdenkknvhmfbg`qs9
167
(302)
Negative /te</ (/ka</) Tone Distribution
Features
+perf
+real
P4
P3
P2
P1
Ø
L
L
L
L
-perf
+real
-prog
L
L
L
LH
LH
-perf
+real
+prog
L
LH
LH
LH
LH
F2
F3
F4
(L)
+perf
-real
168
F1
LH
L
L
L
-perf
-real
-prog
L
LH
L
L
L
-perf
-real
+prog
L
LH
L
L
L
@rrtlhmfsg`s`rhmfkdKsnmdhrsgdtmcdqkxhmfkdwhb`ksnmdne.sd∆.+vd
b`me`bsnqntssgdqdftk`qKsnmdqd`khy`shnmrkd`uhmfnmkxsgdnbbtqqdmbdr
nerodbh`kodqstqadcsnmdrnmsghrl`qjdq+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfqduhrdc
bg`qs9
(303)
Negative /te</ Perturbed Tone Distribution
Features
P4
P3
P2
-perf
+real
-prog
-perf
+real
+prog
+perf
-real
LH
LH
P1
Ø
LH
LH
LH
LH
F1
F2
F3
F4
LH
-perf
-real
-prog
LH
-perf
-real
+prog
LH
169
Rdudq`knesgdodqstqadcsnmdrnmMDFl`qjdqr`qdsgdqdrtksnesgdG
snmdsnm`kvnqcchrbtrrdchmsgdoqduhntrrdbshnm-Sgda`rhrenqonrhshmf
rtbg`snm`kvnqc`qdonrhshud.mdf`shudo`hqrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf9
(304) aL laL neP nduJmteL mbaLb
3
3 13
1
3
"he bit the meat"
3
(yesterday)
aL laL teN neL nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
3
3 31
3
1
3
3
1
"he didn’t bite the meat"
(yesterday)
Rhmbdvdb`mrgnveqnll`mxnsgdqdw`lokdrsg`ssgdtmcdqkxhmf
kdwhb`ksnmdrnmansgsgdMDF.sd∆.`mcoqnfqdrrhud.md∆.l`qjdqr`qd
cdehmhsdkxK+sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrrddlsnbnms`hm`ekn`shmfGsnmd
adsvddmsgdMDF`mcoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqrvghbgcnbjrnmsnsgddmcne
sgdMDF.sd∆.vgdmhshroqdrdmsatsnmsnsgdoqnfqdrrhud.md∆.vgdmsgd
MDFhr`ardms-Sgtr+ansgsgdtmcdqkhmdcGKe`kkhmfsnmdhmsgdonrhshud
rdmsdmbd+`mcsgdtmcdqkhmdcKGqhrhmfsnmdhmhsrmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qs
qdrtkseqnlsgdr`ldtmcdqkxhmfsnmd-RhmbdsgdGKe`kkhmfsnmdv`r
chrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmsgdoqduhntrrdbshnm+vdvhkkdw`lhmdgdqdnmkxsgd
KGqhrhmfsnmdvghbghrqd`khydcnmsgdMDFl`qjdq-
Adenqddw`lhmhmfhmcds`hksgdcdqhu`shnmnertbg`odqstqadcqhrhmf
snmd+hsrchrsqhatshnmrgntkcadldmshnmdc-@rrddmeqnlsgdoqdbdchmf
bg`qs+lnrsnesgdKGqhrhmfsnmdrbntkcadoqdchbsdcaxonrhshmf`Gsnmd
snm`kvnqcenkknvhmfsgdMDFl`qjdqenqallqd`khrhlodqedbshud
170
rdmsdmbdrexceptsgnrdvghbgg`ud`m'hqqd`khr(etstqdl`qjdq'h-d-O3(nq
`qtkdvghbglnchehdrsgdudqasnmdr'h-d-O1`mcO2mnm,oqnfqdrrhud
hlodqedbshudr+cdrbqhadchmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud(-Rtbg`qtkdvntkcs`jd
b`qdne`kksgdKGqhrhmfsnmdrhmqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmrhmntqbg`qs-
Vdb`mmnvdw`lhmdsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdmdf`shudrdmsdmbdhmsgd
oqdbdchmfdw`lokd-Hsrtmcdqkxhmfkdwhb`krsqtbstqdvntkc`ood`q`radknv9
(305)
#
N
#
P
#
#
L
#
L
#
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
Rhmbdsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdsnmdrnmsgdudqag`r`kqd`cxaddmchrbtrrdchm
cds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-1-`anud+vdenbtrgdqdtonmsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdsnmdrne
sgdMDFl`qjdq'M(`mcsgdoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'O(-Sgdehqrsrsdohrsgd
hmrdqshnmaxlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdne`Gsnmdsnm`kvnqcadsvddmsgdrdsvn
l`qjdqr+`rchrbtrrdchmsgdoqdbdchmfrdbshnm`mc`rrgnvmadknv9
(306)
#
N
#
#
L
#
Ø
#
P
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
H
RhmbdsgdMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.hroqdrdmshmsghrrdmsdmbd+`rdo`q`sdlnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkd`rrnbh`sdrsgdGsnmdnesgdsnm`kvnqcsnsgdMDFrxkk`akd'M(
nmhsrkdes+`radknv9
171
(307)
#
N
#
#
L
#
H
#
P
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
Sgdmdwssvnqtkdrsnnodq`sd`qdsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdqd`khronk`qsnmdoqdbdchmfsgdudqaqnns
'U(+vghbghr`KsnmdadenqdsgdGsnmdnesghrqnns+snsgdoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq
nmhsrkdes+vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`mcsgd
VEQvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdsnmdkdrrrxkk`akd'R(snsgdehqrssnmdnmhsrkdes+`r
adknv9
(308)
#
N
#
#
L
#
H
#
P
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
S
+
+
#
L
#
Sgdehm`kqtkdsnnodq`sdnmsghrcdqhu`shnmhrntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmd
snm`klnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdehm`kekn`shmfKsnmdsnsgdRrxkk`akd
vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdGsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Sghrehm`kbg`mfd
qdrtksrhmsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm+`radknv9
(309)
#
N
#
#
L
#
3
172
#
P
#
H
#
L
#
1
-
+
V
+
L
+
H
+
3
-
1
-
S
+
+
#
L
3
#
Sgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnmhrbg`q`bsdqhrshbne`kksgdKGqhrhmfsnmdr
vghbgnbbtqnmsgdMDFl`qjdqhmqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdbg`qs`ssgd
adfhmmhmfnesghrrdbshnm`krnrgnvdcsg`stmtrt`kKGqhrhmfsnmdr`krn
nbbtqqdchmirqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr+snadrodbhehb+hmE0etstqd
bnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdenkknvhmfo`hqneE0rdmsdmbdrrgnvrsg`ssgdqhrhmf
snmdhrmnsb`trdcaxsgdr`ldGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldadb`trdsgd
onrhshudrdmsdmbdcndrnotg`ud`GKe`kkhmfsnmdnmsgdoqnfqdrrhud.md∆.9
(310) aL geL neL zKaYMa mbaLb
3
3
3
2 5
"he will be cutting the meat"
5
(later today)
aL teN ngeL neL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
3 31
3
3
2 5
5
3
"he won’t be cutting the meat"
(later today)
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrrgnvsgdoqdrdmbdne`m'tmcdqkhmdc(KG
qhrhmfsnmdnmsgdMDFl`qjdqand`mhlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfm`r`koqdehw
`eehwdcsnsgdsnc`xetstqdl`qjdq.fd∆.nmkxhmmdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr-
Vg`shrtmtrt`k`antsansgsgdqhrhmfsnmd`mcsgdm`r`koqdehwhrsg`ssgdx
`kv`xrnbbtqsnfdsgdq`mcsgdxnmkxnbbtqhmE0negativebnmrsqtbshnmr+
`kadhshmallE0mdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Vdsgdqdenqdonrhs`rhmfkd
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbghmrdqsransg`m`r`koqdehw'k`adkkdcknvdq
b`rd!m!nmsgdrxkk`ahbshdqrhmbdhshrmns`etkksnmd,ad`qhmfrxkk`akd(`mc
`Gsnmdvghbghr`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdmdwsrxkk`akdnmhsrkdes'`kv`xrsgd
173
MDFl`qjdq.sd∆.rhmbdhshrnmkxhmmdf`shudE0bnmrsqtbshnmrsg`ssghrqtkd
hrsqhffdqdc(-Ntqkdwhb`kbnmrsqtbshnm`ood`qr`radknv'vhsg!E!l`qjhmf
sgdetstqdl`qjdqnmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq(beforesgdqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(311)
#
N
#
F
#
P
#
#
L
#
L
#
L
#
Ntqlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'458(adknv(mnv`ookhdr`mc
hmrdqsr`m`r`koqdehw'rxlankhydcvhsg`knvdqb`rd!m!nmsgdrxkk`ahb
shdqrhmbdhsmdudqb`qqhdr`snmd(nmsgdetstqdl`qjdqvghkd`rrnbh`shmf
sgdGsnmdnesg`soqdehwa`bjsnsgdoqdbdchmfMDFl`qjdqnmhsrkdes+`r
adknv9
(312)
n-
#
N
#
Ø
+
F
#
P
#
#
L
#
Ø
+
L
#
L
#
H
Rhmbdntqcnvmrsdoqtkdhrmnssqhffdqdchmsghro`qsnesgd
bnmrsqtbshnm+sgdrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhrrsq`hfgsenqv`qc+`radknv9
174
(313)
#
N
#
n- +
F
#
P
#
#
L
#
H
+
L
#
L
#
1
-
3
-
3
3
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqrdbshnmnmmdf`shudl`qjdqr`mcsgdlnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbgnbb`rhnm`kkxodqstqasgdhqsnmdr-
175
1-3-AdsvddmOgq`rdr
Vdg`uditrsbnmbktcdcntqsvnl`hmrdbshnmrnmsnm`kqtkdr`mcsnm`k
cdqhu`shnmr+bnmbdmsq`shmfehqrsnmmntmrhmrdbshnm1-1-`mcsgdmnmudqar
hmrdbshnm1-2-Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdsgdsnm`kogdmnldm`bg`q`bsdqhrshb
neogq`rditmbstqdr+rodbhehb`kkxadsvddmrtaidbs`mcudqa'hlldch`sdkx
adknv(`mcadsvddmudqa`mcnaidbs'rdbshnm1-3-1-etqsgdqadknv(-
2.4.1. Between subject and verb
L`mxM`qqnvA`mstk`mft`fdrg`ud`etkkbnmbnqcoqdehw`r`
!rtaidbsl`qjdq!'RL(`ssgditmbstqdnertaidbsmntmogq`rd`mcsgd
enkknvhmfudqaogq`rd-Rtaidbsl`qjdqrg`udmnsxdsaddmqdonqsdchm
A`lhkdjdk`mft`fdr+oqna`akxnvhmfsnsgdk`bjne`mxrdfldms`k
l`qjhmf-Ats+rtaidbsl`qjdqrcndwhrs+`skd`rshmMfxdla——m-Sgd
rtaidbsl`qjdqrhmMfxdla——m`qdbnmsqnkkdcaxsgdjhmcneudqa`k
bnmrsqtbshnmvghbgenkknvr-Hesgdrdmsdmbdhro`rshmchb`shud+sgdrtaidbs
l`qjdqhr`rhlokdbnmbnqcsnmdvghbgnbbtqr`ssgddmcnesgdrtaidbs
mntmogq`rd-Hesgdrdmsdmbdhretstqdhmchb`shud+sgdrtaidbsl`qjdqhrrshkk
`rhlokdbnmbnqcsnmdcdsdqlhmdcaxsgdmntmbk`rrnesgdoqdbdchmf
mntm+atsvgdmdudqsghrsnmdhr`Gsnmd+`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd
bg`mfdrhshmu`qhntrv`xr-Ehm`kkx+hesgdrdmsdmbdhrhmsgdydqnsdmrd+
sgdrtaidbsl`qjdq'chrbtrrdcetqsgdqadknv(u`qhdr`bbnqchmfsnsgd
176
`rodbs`mclncdnesgdudqa-
Vdvhkkadfhmaxdw`lhmhmfhmcds`hksgdbnmbnqcsnmdvghbg
etmbshnmr`r`rtaidbsl`qjdqhmo`rshmchb`shudrdmsdmbdr-Khjdsgd
bnmbnqcsnmdvghbgetmbshnmr`rsgd`rrnbh`shudl`qjdqhmmntm,mntm
bnmrsqtbshnmr'cdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-1-1-`anud(+sgdbnmbnqc
snmdsg`shrsgdrtaidbsl`qjdqhr`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdldenqmntm
bk`rrdr0`mc8`mc`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdldenqsgdnsgdqdhfgsmntm
bk`rrdr'rdd'432(adknvenqbk`rroqdehwdrne`kksdmmntmbk`rrdr(-Sgd
l`inqtmcdqkxhmfcheedqdmbdadsvddmsgd`rrnbh`shudbnmbnqcsnmd`mcsgd
rtaidbsl`qjdqbnmbnqcsnmdhrsg`ssgd`rrnbh`shudsnmdetmbshnmr`r`
oqdehwnmsgdrdbnmcmntmvghkdsgdrtaidbsl`qjdqsnmdetmbshnmr`r`
rteehwnmsgddmcnesgdmntmogq`rd-Sgtrsgd`rrnbh`shudsnmdg`r`
rsqnmfdqfq`ll`shb`kantmc`qxsnhsrkdesvghkdsgdrtaidbsl`qjdqsnmd
g`r`rsqnmfdqfq`ll`shb`kantmc`qxsnhsrqhfgs-
Adenqdonrhshmftmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdr`mcdw`lhmhmfu`qhntr
cdqhu`shnmr+vdvhkkknnj`ssgdsvnbg`q`bsdqhrshbdw`lokdrrgnvmadknv9
(314) aLmbuLY kaL zaLY mbaLb
3
3
3
3
3
meLpuNY kaP zaLY mbaLb
3 31 13
3
3
"the deaf-man-(1) cut the meat"
(yesterday)
"the deaf-men-(2) cut the meat"
(yesterday)
177
Sgdtmcdqkhmdcvnqcrhmsgdsvnoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrg`udsgdr`ld
qnns+.otæù.!cd`e,l`m-!Sgdehqrsdw`lokdtrdrsgdqnnsvhsgsgdmntmbk`rr
0oqdehw.`∆M,.+vghbgrhfmhehdr!rhmftk`q-!Sgdgnlnqf`mhbm`r`k
bnmrnm`ms'M(hmsgdoqdehw`rrhlhk`sdrsnsgdonhmsne`qshbtk`shnmnesgd
enkknvhmfbnmrnm`ms+`mcsgdbnmrnm`msu`qh`ms'o(bg`mfdrsnhsrunhbdc
u`qh`ms'a(vgdmdudqhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdcax`m`r`kbnmrnm`mshmsgd
r`ldvnqc-Sgdrdbnmcdw`lokdrgnvrntqr`ldmntmqnnsvhsgsgdmntm
bk`rr1oqdehw.ld∆,.+vghbgrhfmhehdr!oktq`k-!Sgdmntmbk`rrmtladqne
sgdmntmvhkkad`ccdcsnsgdfknrrsnsgddw`lokdrhmsghr`mcsgd
enkknvhmfrdbshnm-
Sgdqd`rnmenqbhshmfsgdoqdbdchmfsvndw`lokdrhrmnssgd
ognmnknfhb`k`ksdqm`shnmrhmbnmrnm`msr+atssgdsnm`kodqstqa`shnmrvghbg
s`jdok`bd+rodbhehb`kkx+sg`ssgdqhrhmfsnmdneZot¿ù\g`raddmknrshmsgd
b`rdne`rtaidbseqnlmntmbk`rr0+`mcsgdsnmdnmsgdenkknvhmfsdmrd
l`qjdq.j`∆.g`raddmodqstqadchmsn`GKe`kkhmfsnmdhmsgdb`rdne`
rtaidbseqnlmntmbk`rr1-@radrg`kkrddadknv+ansgnesgdrdsnmd
bg`mfdr`qdrsq`hfgsenqv`qcqdrtksrnesgdrtaidbsl`qjdqbnmbnqcsnmd
vghbgvdonrhsgdqdadsvddmsgdrtaidbsmntmogq`rd`mcsgdenkknvhmf
udqaogq`rd-
Dw`lhmhmfehqrsntq!rhmftk`q!dw`lokd+vgdqdsgdmnql`kqhrhmfsnmd
nmsgdmntmqnnsZot¿ù\adbnldr`kdudkKsnmd+vdonrhs`mtmcdqkxhmf
kdwhb`krsqtbstqdkhjdsgdenkknvhmf'rxkk`akd!@!adhmfsgdrtaidbsmntm
178
oqdehw+rxkk`akd!A!sgdmntmqnns+sgdsnm`klnqogdldsgdrtaidbsl`qjdq
bnmbnqcsnmd`mcrxkk`akd!S!sgdsdmrdl`qjdq(9
(315)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
L
T
¶
#
L
#
Sgdoqdbdchmfqdoqdrdms`shnmtrdrsgdrxlank!ï!snqdedqsn`ogq`rd
antmc`qx-@rvdrg`kkrddhmsghrrdbshnm`mcsgdmdws+sgdonrhshmfne`
ogq`rdantmc`qxvghbghrrsqnmfdqsg`m`vnqcantmc`qxvhkkoqnud
bqtbh`khmsgdqduhrhnmnentqsvnsnmdqtkdrenq`rrnbh`shmfsnm`k
lnqogdldr-Sghrrsqnmfdqantmc`qxhronrhsdcafter`rtaidbsl`qjdq
`mcbefore`mnaidbsl`qjdq+rtffdrshmfsg`sansgsgdrdl`qjdqr`qdo`qs
nesgdhqqdrodbshudmntmogq`rdr`mcmnso`qsnesgdhmsdqudmhmfudqa`k
l`sdqh`k-
Sgdehqrssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqfdmdq`kkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkd
vghbg`rrnbh`sdrd`bgnesgdsgqddrxkk`akdr'!@!enqmntmbk`rroqdehw+
!A!enqmntmqnns`mc!S!enqsdmrdl`qjdq(snsgdkdeslnrssnmdin the
same morpheme+`radknv9
(316)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
L
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Sgdehqrsqdftk`qsnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdnmsghrbnmrsqtbshnmhrsgdqhrd,
179
enql`shnmqtkd'rdd'18(`anud(vghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdc
snrxkk`akd@`krnsnrxkk`akdA+bqd`shmf`qhrhmfsnmdnmrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(317)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
L
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Sgdntsotsnesgdoqdbdchmfqtkdeddcrntqqhrd,cdkdshnmsnmdqtkd'rdd'40(
`anud(rhmbdsgdqhrdhrenkknvdcax`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdld-Sgdqhrd,cdkdshnm
qtkdcdkdsdrbnlokdsdkxsgdGsnmd`rrnbh`sdcvhsgrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(318)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
L
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Ø
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkd
'rdd'27(`anud(vghbgmnsnmkxcnbjrsgdKsnmdnesgdsnm`klnqogdldsn
rxkk`akdA+ats`krnchr`rrnbh`sdrsgdr`ldrxkk`akdeqnlsgdnsgdqKsnmd
`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(319)
//
A
+
//
L
+
B
+
+
L
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Rhmbdmnekn`shmfsnmdrqdl`hm`ssghrrs`fdnentqcdqhu`shnm+mdhsgdqnesgd
cnvmrsdoqtkdrhrsqhffdqdc+`mcsgdrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhrsgdenkknvhmf9
180
(320)
//
A
+
//
L
+
3
-
B
+
+
¶
T
#
L
¶
L
#
3
-
3
-
Sgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnmg`raddmudqxrhlhk`qsnsg`senq`rrnbh`shudmntm
o`ssdqmrk2sgqntfgk5cdrbqhadchmrdbshnm1-1-1-`anud+vgdqdsgdGsnmdne`
KGqhrhmfsnmdv`r`krncdkdsdcadenqd`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdld-Vdmnvlnud
nmsnsgdo`q`kkdkb`rdvgdqd`rtaidbsmntmvhsgsgdr`ldtmcdqkxhmfK*G
snm`krsqtbstqdhrenkknvdcax`Gbnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq-Rtbg`
cdqhu`shnmvntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdqsgdnodq`shnmnentqkdes,sn,qhfgssnm`k
l`oohmfqtkd9
(321)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdehqrsqdftk`qsnm`kqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgdqhrd,enql`shnmqtkd
vghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmdnerxkk`akd@`krnsnrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(322)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
@ssghronhms+ntqqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkdcndrmnsnodq`sd+rhmbdsgdKG
qhrhmfsnmdhrenkknvdcax`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhmrsd`cne`Ksnmd-
181
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`klnqogdld
qtkdvghbgltrsadrkhfgskxlnchehdcsnmnschr`rrnbh`sdsgdmdwsrxkk`akd
'S`anud(eqnl`mxsnmdrhshr`rrnbh`sdcvhsg-Sghrhrcnmdaxkhlhshmf
sgdchr`rrnbh`shnmsnb`rdrvgdqdsgdhmsdqudmhmfantmc`qxhrmnrsqnmfdq
sg`m`vnqcantmc`qx+`rhmntqqduhrdcqtkd'ehqrsenqltk`sdchm'45(
`anud(+`rqdrs`sdcadknv9
(323) Rule 7’:
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
+
+
H
+
#
+
T
Condition: association line deleted only if boundary
between H and T tones is weaker than a
phrase boundary (¶).
Hsrgntkcadmnsdc`ssghronhmssg`s`ksdqm`sdld`mr`qdonrrhakdsn
`bbnlokhrgsgdr`lddeedbs`rsgdbnmchshnmsg`svdg`ud`ccdcsnsgd
oqdbdchmfqtkd-@mcdqrnm'0870973(oqnonrdcsg`sbdqs`hmqtkdrvntkc
nodq`sdhesgdrxkk`akdv`rZ*MBO\+`mntmbk`rroqdehw-Rsdv`qs
'08709004(oqnonrdcsnkhlhsrnldqtkdraxchrshmfthrghmfadsvddm!rnkhc!
`mc!ekthc!rxkk`akdr-Ansgnesgdrd`ksdqm`shudr`ssdlossnb`ostqdsgd
nardqu`shnmsg`srnldsnmdqtkdrsdmcsn`ookxnmkxsnqnnsrxkk`akdr`mc
mdudqsn`eehwdr-Vghkdrtbg`rnktshnmlhfgs`krnadsgdadrsenq
182
Mfxdla——m+vdg`udbgnrdmsnkhlhsntqqtkdrsnadhmfqdrsqhbsdcax
antmc`qxogdmnldm``rltbg`ronrrhakdhmnqcdqsn`unhcsgdtrdne
fq`ll`shb`khmenql`shnmhmnsgdqvhrdognmnknfhb`kqtkdr-
Ntqqduhrdcqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkd`ookhdrsn
ntqoqdrdmscdqhu`shnmax`rrnbh`shmfsgdGsnmdsnsgdkdesatsnot
cdkdshmfsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmd`kqd`cx`ss`bgdcsnrxkk`akdSrhmbdsgd
ogq`rdantmc`qx'ï(rdo`q`sdrsgdsvnsnmdr-Sgdsnmdqtkdsgtrnodq`sdr
`radknv9
(324)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Nmbd`f`hm+mdhsgdqnentqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdr`ookhdrsnsghr
o`qshbtk`qo`ssdqm+`mcsgdrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(325)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
3
-3 1
-
1
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
3
-
Vdg`udrgnvm`anudsg`smntmrvhsgtmcdqkxhmfK*Gsnm`ko`ssdqmr
knrdsgdhqtrt`kKGqhrhmfsnmdrvgdmsgdmntmhr`rtaidbseqnldhsgdq
mntmbk`rrknq8+atssgdxbqd`sd`GKe`kkhmfsnmdnmsgdmdwsrxkk`akdhe
sgdmntmrbnldreqnl`mxnsgdqnesgdsdmmntmbk`rrdr-Vdrgnvdcgnv
onrhshmf`bnmbnqcsnmdsnm`klnqogdldrteehwdcsnsgdrtaidbsmntm
183
ogq`rdoqnctbdrsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdcdqhu`shnmr-
Qd`cdqr`bpt`hmsdcvhsgsgdoqdu`kdmbdneroqd`chmfsnmdqtkdrhm
@eqhb`mk`mft`fdrlhfgssghmjsg`ssghrk`rsoqnbdrrv`ritrs`fdmdq`k
snmdqtkdroqd`chmfsgdGsnmdeqnlsgdmntmnmsnsgdmdwsvnqc-Sgd
enkknvhmfdw`lokdr+vgdqdsgdrtaidbsmntmrg`ud`mtmcdqkxhmfK*K
snm`ko`ssdqm+oqnudsg`ssghrhrmnssgdb`rd9
(326) eLncuLm kaL zaLY mbaLb
3
3
3
3
3
(yesterday)
meLncuLm kaP zaLY mbaLb
3
3
13
3
"the heron-(9) cut the meat"
3
"the herons-(4) cut the meat"
(yesterday)
Sgdrtaidbshmsgdoqdbdchmfrdmsdmbdrhr`mntmathksnmsgdqnnsenq
sgdahqcvghbghrb`kkdc`!gdqnm!.bt∆l.-Sghrmntmqnnsadknmfrsnmntm
fdmcdq8.3+vghbghrsnr`xsg`shsenqlrhsrrhmftk`qaxoqdehwhmfsgdbk`rr
8oqdehw.'d∆(M,.'vgdqdsgdunvdk!d!hrnmkxoqnmntmbdc`ssgdadfhmmhmf
nerdmsdmbdr(+`mchsenqlrhsroktq`kaxoqdehwhmfsgdbk`rr3oqdehw
.ld∆M,.-Sgdqd`rnmvdg`udrdkdbsdcsghro`qshbtk`qmntmhrsg`smntm
bk`rr8g`rKsnmdbnmbnqcvghkdmntmbk`rr3g`rGsnmdbnmbnqc-Sgtr+
vhsgsgdr`ldmntmqnns+vdb`mdw`lhmdansgbnmbnqconrrhahkhshdr-
Hmcddc+`rntqdw`lokdrrgnv+vgdmsgdb`rdnesgdbk`rr3mntmhr
rtaidbs+sgdenkknvhmf'tmcdqkhmdc(sdmrdl`qjdq.j`∆.g`rhsrsnmd
odqstqadceqnlsgdmnql`kKsnmdsn`GKe`kkhmfsnmd-Sghrodqstqa`shnm
184
hrsgdqdrtksnesgdGbnmbnqcsnmdsg`svdonrhsdc`r`rtaidbsl`qjdqnm
sgddmcnesgdrtaidbsmntmogq`rd-Sgdtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdnesghr
bnmrsqtbshnm`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgsl`oohmfqtkdg`r
nodq`sdc9
(327)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
L
+
H
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Sgdnmkxsnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdgdqdhrntqqduhrdcqtkdvghbgcnbjrG
snmdsnm`klnqogdldrsnsgdkdes+atscndrmnschr`rrnbh`sdsgdmdwssnmd
snsgdkdesvgdmsgdhmsdqudmhmfantmc`qxhr`ogq`rdantmc`qx+`radknv9
(328)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
L
+
H
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
Rhmbdmdhsgdqnesgdk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdr`ookhdrsnsghro`ssdqm+ntq
cdqhu`shnmhrqd`khydcrs`hfgsenqv`qckx`radknv9
(329)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
L
+
H
3
-
3
-
1
¶
T
#
¶
L
#
3
-
185
Vdg`uddw`lhmdc`anudu`qhntrcdqhu`shnmrvghbglnshu`sdonrhshmf
`bnmbnqcsnmd`rsgdrtaidbsl`qjdqenqo`rssdmrdrdmsdmbdrvhsgetkk
mntmr`rrtaidbsr-Vdvhkkmnvs`jd`knnj`srdmsdmbdrvhsgoqnmntmr`r
rtaidbsr-SgdMfxdla——moqnmntmrenq`mhl`sdnaidbsreqnlmntmbk`rrdr
0`mc1hmrtaidbsonrhshnm`qdsgdenkknvhmf9
(330)
Subject Pronouns
Singular
Plural
/Nf/ "I"
/peJg/
Long forms
"we(exclusive)"
/meLB/ "I"
/pDJgD/ "we(inclusive dual)"
/peJge/ "we(inclusive plural)"
/DL/ "you(sg.)"
/p`g/
"you(pl.)"
/guL/ "you(sg.)"
/aL/ "he/she/it"
/pDJ/
"they"
/pDJb/ "they"
U`qhntrnardqu`shnmrrgntkcadl`cd`antssgdoqdbdchmfrtaidbs
oqnmntmrhmkhfgsneo`q`kkdkrsgdxg`udvhsgmntmbk`rrdr0`mc1-Hmlnrs
A`mstk`mft`fdr+mntmbk`rrdr0`mc1lnrsnesdmhmchb`sdrhmftk`q`mc
oktq`kgtl`mmntmrqdrodbshudkx-Hm`cchshnm+sgdbnmbnqcsnmdenqbk`rr0
hrKsnmdvghkdenqbk`rr1hshrGsnmd-Sgdbnmrnm`msbnmbnqcenq
Mfxdla——mmntmrhr.v.enqbk`rr0`mc.o.enqbk`rr1-Sgdo`q`kkdkr
adsvddmsgdrdsxohb`kmntmbk`rrdkdldmsr`mcsgdhqqdrodbshudrtaidbs
186
oqnmntmrvntkcrddlsn`qftdrsqnmfkxenqsgdoqnmntmradhmf`skd`rs
o`qsh`kkxcdqhudceqnlmntmbk`rroqdehwdr-Ehqrs+`kksgdrhmftk`qrtaidbs
oqnmntmr`qdKsnmd-Hm`cchshnm+`kksgdoktq`krtaidbsoqnmntmr`qdG
snmd`mcadfhmvhsgsgdbnmrnm`ms.o.-Dudmsgd!knmfenql!rtaidbs
oqnmntmr+vgnrddw`bsbnmchshnmhmfe`bsnq`mccdqhudcrdl`mshbenqbdg`r
xdssnadchrbnudqdc+`krnenkknvsgdrdr`ldo`q`kkdkrvhsgmntmbk`rr
ogdmnldm`-
Sgdqd`rnmvdg`udaqntfgstosgdsnohbnertaidbsoqnmntmr`mcsgdhq
mntmbk`rro`q`kkdkrhrsg`ssgdrtaidbsoqnmntmrs`jd`bnmbnqcsnmd`r
rtaidbsl`qjdqitrskhjdetkkmntmr-Gnvdudq+vg`shrtmtrt`khrsg`s`kk
sgdrtaidbsoqnmntmr`bskhjdrhmftk`qbk`rr0mntmr'hms`jhmf`Ksnmd
bnmbnqcsnmd`rrtaidbsl`qjdq(dwbdossgdsghqcodqrnmoktq`koqnmntmr
.o—æ.`mc.o—æa.vghbg`bskhjdoktq`kbk`rr1mntmr'hms`jhmf`Gbnmbnqc
snmd`rrtaidbsl`qjdq(+`rdwdlokhehdcaxsgdenkknvhmfrdmsdmbdr9
(331) pDJgDL kaL zaLY mbaLb
1 3
3
3
3
pDJ kaP zaLY mbaLb
1 13
3
3
"you-and-I-(1) cut the meat"
(yesterday)
"they-(2) cut the meat"
(yesterday)
@rrddmenqmntmr`anud+sgdKsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqenkknvhmf.o—æf—.cnbjr
snsgdleft`mclnchehdrsgd'tmcdqkhmdc(dbgnunvdknesgdrtaidbsoqnmntm+
vghkdsgdGsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqenkknvhmf.o—æ.cnbjrsnsgdright`mcbg`mfdr
sgdKsnmdsdmrdl`qjdq.j`∆.hmsn`GKe`kkhmfsnmd-Sgtr+sgntfg`kksgdeqnydm
187
oktq`koqnmntmrrddlsng`qjdma`bjsnsgdhqbk`rr1nqhfhmraxrs`qshmfvhsgZo\
`mcg`uhmf`Gsnmd+nmkxsgdsghqcodqrnmoktq`koqnmntmr`bst`kkxadg`udkhjd
bk`rr1mntmrhmo`rssdmrdrdmsdmbdr-Sgde`bssg`ssgdoqnmntmr`krng`udmddc
ne`enkknvhmfbnmbnqcsnmdhmcdodmcdmskxlnshu`sdrntqonrhshmfrtbg`snmdnm
sgda`rhrnertaidbsmntmadg`uhnq-
G`uhmfdw`lhmdcsgdbnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqmddcdchmo`rssdmrd
rdmsdmbdr+vdmnvlnudnmsndw`lhmdsgdlnqdbnlokhb`sdcrtaidbsl`qjdq
mddcdchmetstqdsdmrdrdmsdmbdr-Sgddw`lokdrsg`svdvhkkdw`lhmd`qdsgd
enkknvhmf9
(332) aLmbuLБ tKo zKaY mbMab "the deaf-man-(1) will cut the meat"
3
3
2
3
6
(tomorrow)
aLmbuLБ lMu zKaY mbMab "the deaf-man-(1) will cut the meat"
3
3
4
3
6
meLpu
S Y toJ zKaY mbMab "the deaf-men-(2) will cut the meat"
3 312 2
3
6
(tomorrow)
meLpu
S Y luL zKaY mbMab "the deaf-men-(2) will cut the meat"
3 312 4
3
6
meLncuLm tKo zKaY mbMab "the herons-(4) will cut the meat"
3 3
2
3
6
(tomorrow)
meLncuLm lMu zKaY mbMab "the herons-(4) will cut the meat"
3
188
3
4
3
6
SgdoqdbdchmfrdmsdmbdrrgnvsgqddcheedqdmsmntmrvhsgG`mcKsnmd
etstqd`twhkh`qxudqar-Sgde`bssg`ssgdmnql`kKGqhrhmfsnmdbqd`sdcnm
sgdmntm!cd`e,l`m,'0(!hrmnsqd`khydc`qftdrenqsgdoqdrdmbdnesgd
r`ldKbnmbnqcsnmd`rrtaidbsl`qjdqvhsgKbnmbnqcsnmdbk`rrdr'0`mc
8(-Vdvhkk`krnonrhssgdo`q`kkdkGbnmbnqcsnmd`rrtaidbsl`qjdqvhsg
sgdnsgdqbk`rrdr+sgntfgsghrsnmdcndrtmtrt`ksghmfr-Ehqrs+vgdmhs
enkknvrmntmrvghbgdmcnm`m`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd+khjdsgd!gdqnmr,'3(!
`anud+sgdGsnmdcqnorntsbnlokdsdkx-
Ltbglnqdcheehbtkssncdqhud`qdsgdtmtrt`k'tmcdqkhmdc(qhrhmf,
cnvmrsdoodc,ghfgsnmdrvghbgnmkxnbbtqvgdm`qhrhmfsnmdhrbqd`sdc
adenqd`m`twhkh`qxudqahm`etstqdbnmrsqtbshnm-Sgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdrd
tmtrt`ksnmdrvntkcadfhmvhsg`rsqtbstqdkhjdsgdenkknvhmf`esdqsgd
kdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc'vhsg!E!qdoqdrdmshmfsgd
`twhkh`qxudqatrdcsnhmchb`sdetstqdshld(9
(333)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
F
#
¶
T
#
Mnv+beforesgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrnodq`sd+vdmddc`rodbh`k'q`sgdq
`cgnb(hchnrxmbq`shblnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'46/(adknv(vghbg
s`jdrsgdGsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq`mchmrdqsrsgdGsnmdhlldch`sdkxadenqd
189
sgd`twhkh`qxudqasnmdinsidesgd`twhkh`qxl`qjdq+`rrnbh`shmfsghrG
snmda`bjsnsgdk`rsrxkk`akdnesgdrtaidbsmntmogq`rd+`mc`kksghronly
vgdmsgdoqdbdchmfmntmogq`rdg`r`ehm`k`rrnbh`sdcGsnmd-Sghr
hchnrxmbq`shblnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdoqnctbdrsgdenkknvhmfdeedbs9
(334)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
F
#
¶
T
#
Vgdmsgdqdftk`qsnmdqtkdrnodq`sd+ntqqhrd,enql`shnmqtkd`rrnbh`sdr
sgdKsnmdnerxkk`akd@`krnsnrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(335)
//
A
+
B
+
¶
F
#
//
L
+
H
+
¶
H T
#
Sgdbqtbh`ko`qsnentqcdqhu`shnmmnv`qqhudrvgdmntqmnql`kk`sd
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdhmrdqsr`mhqqd`khrpolarsnmdhlldch`sdkx
adenqdsgd`twhkh`qxudqal`qjhmfetstqdsdmrd-Rhmbd+axsghrshld+sgd
`twhkh`qxudqag`rsgdodqstqadcGrtaidbsl`qjdqsnmd`rhsrqhfgslnrs
snmd+sgdonk`qsnmdvghbghrhmrdqsdchr`kv`xr`Ksnmd+`radknv9
190
(336)
//
A
+
B
+
¶
//
L
+
H
+
¶
+
Ø
F
#
+ H T
#
-[T
L
Rhmbdsgdnmkxqtkdrkdessnnodq`sd`qdntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdr+sgdnmkx
qdl`hmhmfbg`mfdhrsg`ssgdekn`shmfKsnmdknvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg
adenqdsgdenkknvhmf`rrnbh`sdcGsnmd-SgdenkknvhmfGsnmdhrgnvdudq
`rrnbh`sdca`bjsnsgdk`rsrxkk`akdnesgdmntmogq`rd+oqnctbhmfrdmsdmbdrvhsg
sgdmnql`k!hqqd`khr!cnvmrsdoed`stqdmnsqd`khydcnmsgd`twhkh`qxudqa+atsnm
sgdoqdbdchmfmntmqnns+`radknv'vgdqdsgdehqrsqnvnemtladqrhrenq`etstqd
`twhkh`qxudqa'E(vhsgtmcdqkxhmfGsnmd`mcsgdrdbnmcqnvenq`rhlhk`qudqa
vhsgtmcdqkxhmfKsnmd(9
(337)
//
A
+
B
+
¶
+
F
#
//
L
+
H
+
¶
+
H T
#
3
-3 1
2-2
-
3
-3 1
2-4
-
L
Ntqtmtrt`klnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdsgtrfhudrqhrdsnsgdnmkx
nbbtqqdmbdrnesgdtmtrt`kqhrhmf,cnvmrsdoodc,ghfgsnmd+vgdqdetkkx
191
threesnmdr`qd`rrnbh`sdcsn`rhmfkdrxkk`akd'A(-Snsgd`tsgnq&r
oqdrdmsjmnvkdcfd+sghrtmtrt`kqtkdhrsgdnmkxld`mrneg`uhmf`mx
sgqdd,snmdcrxkk`akdhmsgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fd-
Mnvsg`svdg`uddw`lhmdcsgdadg`uhnqnesgdbnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbs
l`qjdqrhmo`rs`mcetstqdbnmrsqtbshnmr+vd`qdqd`cxsnknnj`sydqn
sdmrdbnmrsqtbshnmrvgdqdd`bgbnmrsqtbshnmg`rhsrnvmjhmcnertaidbs
l`qjhmf-Sgdnmkxnmdnesgdydqnsdmrdbnmrsqtbshnmrsntrd`bnmbnqc
snmd`r`rtaidbsl`qjdqhrsgdmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnm
rgnvmadknv9
(338) aLmbuLY zMaYaL mbaLb
3
3
4 4
"the deaf-man-(1) is cutting meat"
4
aLmbuLY gwDLYDL mbaLb "the deaf-man-(1) is pounding meat"
3
3
3 3
3
meLpuNY z`æYMa mbaLb
3 31
1 4
"the deaf-men-(2) are cutting meat"
4
meLpuNY gwDJYDL mbaLb "the deaf-men-(2) are pounding meat"
3 31
1 3
3
Sgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrrgnvsg`ssgdonrhsdcKbnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbs
l`qjdqenqbk`rr0'`mc8(mntmrcnbjrsnsgdkdes`esdqqhrd,cdkdshnmg`r
dkhlhm`sdcsgdGsnmdeqnlsgdmnql`kKGqhrhmfsnmdmnql`kkxentmcnmsgd
mntmqnns.otæù.!akhmc,l`m-!Sgdk`rssvndw`lokdrrgnvsg`ssgdonrhsdcG
bnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq`krncnbjrsnsgdqhfgs`rvhsgsgdo`rssdmrd
192
dw`lokdrchrbtrrdcd`qkhdq`anud-Vhsgsgdydqnsdmrdgnvdudq+sghrGsnmd
rtaidbsl`qjdqmnsnmkx`rrnbh`sdrchqdbskxnmsnsgdudqaqnns+hsqd`rrnbh`sdrsgd
snmdnesgdudqaqnnssnsgdhlodqedbshudrteehwnesgdudqa-Sgdtmcdqkxhmf
o`ssdqmenqsgdudqarhmsgdrdbnmrsqtbshnmrbnms`hmr`m`cchshnm`kKsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldhlldch`sdkxfollowingsgdudqaqnns+`rchrbtrrdchmrdbshnm1-2-2-
`anud-Vd`ccsnsgdudqabnmrsqtbshnm`mntmvhsgtmcdqkxhmfK*Go`ssdqm
`mcsgdonrhsdcGbnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq+`rrddmadknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,
qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(339)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
V
+
¶
T
+
L
+
I
#
+
L
#
Adenqdsgdqdftk`qsnmdqtkdrnodq`sd+`mhchnrxmbq`shblnqogn,snmnknfhb`k
qtkd'rdd'462(adknv(`rrnbh`sdrsgdGbnmbnqcsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqsnsgdudqa
qnns'U(`mcqd`rrnbh`sdrsgdudqaqnnssnmd'S(snsgdmdwsrxkk`akdnmhsrqhfgs
'H(+`radknv9
(340)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
V
+
¶
T
+
L
+
I
#
+
L
#
Sgdehqrsnesgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrsnnodq`sdhrsgdqhrd,enql`shnmsnmdqtkd
vghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmdnesgdmntmbk`rroqdehw'@(snsgdmntmqnns'A(+`r
adknv9
193
(341)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
V
+
¶
T
+
L
+
I
#
+
L
#
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgdleftv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdvghbg`bst`kkxhmsghrb`rd`rrnbh`sdrsnsgdright+rhmbd
hshrbnmehmdcaxsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdnesgdudqasnmd'S(nmhsrkdes`mc
sgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdnesgdhlodqedbshudrteehwrxkk`akd'H(nmhsrqhfgs-
RhmbdntqVEBr`xrsg`s`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrb`mmnsbqnrr+sgdmdvkhmdltrs
fnsnsgdrxkk`akdnmsgdqhfgs+sgntfgsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfqtkdcndr
cdkdsdsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdnmhsrkdes`rhmlnqdmnql`k`ookhb`shnmr-Rn+
sgdKsnmdnesgdsnm`klnqogdld`rrnbh`sdrsnsgdhlodqedbshudrteehw'H(
vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdudqasnmd'S(`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(342)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
H
¶
V
+
¶
T
+
L
+
I
#
+
L
#
Sgdqd`khy`shnmnesgdrtqe`bdsnmdnmrxkk`akdHmnvcdodmcrtonmsgd
m`stqdnesgdudqaqnnssnmd+vgdsgdqsghrsnmdqd`bgdrsgddmcnesgd
cdqhu`shnm`r`ekn`shmfGnq`ekn`shmfKsnmd-Hesgdsnmdhr`ekn`shmfG
snmdadenqdsgd`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd+hsb`trdrntqcnvmrsdoqtkdsnknvdqsgd
snmdqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg+`rrgnvmhmsgdehqrsqnvnertqe`bdsnmdmtladqr
adknv-Hesgdsnmd'S(hr`Ksnmd+sgdcnvmrsdoqtkdhrmnssqhffdqdc+`mc
194
sgdehm`krxkk`akdhrmnscnvmrsdoodc+`rrgnvmhmsgdrdbnmcqnvne
rtqe`bdsnmdmtladqradknv9
(343)
//
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+
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+
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+
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T
+
//
L
+
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+
H
3
-3 1
-
1
4
-
3
-3 1
-
1
3
-
L
+
I
#
+
L
#
Sgdtmtrt`kKGqhrhmfsnmdnmsgdudqaqnnshmsgdonrhshudodqedbshud
bnmrsqtbshnmnesgdydqnsdmrd'O/(v`rrgnvmhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-
Sgdqdvdldmshnmdcgnvsgdtmtrt`krightward`rrnbh`shnmne`low
snmdrtaidbsl`qjdqv`rbqtbh`ksnsgdcdqhu`shnm-Vdvhkkmnvfhud
`cchshnm`kdw`lokdrvhsgetkkmntmrhmsgdrtaidbsonrhshnm`mcsgdmrgnv
gnvsgdtmtrt`kqhfgsv`qc`rrnbh`shmfKsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqqdrtksrhm
mdtsq`khy`shnmnesgdsnm`kbnmsq`rsadsvddmG`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsr-Ntq
bg`q`bsdqhrshbrdmsdmbdr`qdsgdenkknvhmf9
(344) aLmbuNY zaNY mbMab
3 31
31
4
meLpuNY gwDNY mbMab
3 31
31
"the deaf-man just cut the meat"
"the deaf-men just pounded the meat"
4
Vdvhkkrgnvsgdcdqhu`shnmned`bgrdmsdmbdhmstqmrhmbd+sgntfgsgdx
g`udqdl`qj`akxrhlhk`qtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdr+sgdhqcdqhu`shnmr`qdpthsd
195
chudqfdms-SgdehqrsO/rdmsdmbd`anudvntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,
qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`cnodq`sdc9
(345)
//
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+
B
¶
//
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+
H
¶
L
+
V
#
+
H
#
Adenqd`mxmnql`ksnmdqtkdb`mnodq`sd+`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd
'460(adknv(`ccr`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdld`mc`rrnbh`sdrhs`kksgdv`xsnsgd
udqaqnnsrxkk`akd'U(+`radknv9
(346)
//
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B
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//
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+
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Ø
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L
+
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+
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#
L
Sgdehqrssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqqhrd,enql`shnmqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgd
Ksnmdnerxkk`akd@snrxkk`akdA`rvdkk+`radknv9
(347)
//
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B
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+
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+
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L
¶
L
+
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+
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#
Sgdmdwssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqmnql`kkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdKonk`qsnmdhmsghrb`rdsnsgdqhfgsvghkd
chr`rrnbh`shmfsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsnrxkk`akd'U(+`radknv9
196
(348)
//
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+
B
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//
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+
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+
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L
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L
+
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#
+
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#
Sgdnmkxqtkdvghbgqdl`hmrsnnodq`sdhr`k`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd
'rdd'465(adknv(vghbghmrdqsr`ekn`shmfonk`qsnmd'`m',√S(vghbgadbnldr`
Gsnmdadenqd`Ksnmd(`esdqsgdudqahmO/bnmrsqtbshnmr+`radknv'vgdqd
rxkk`akd!B!rs`mcrenqsgdKsnmdnaidbsmntmbk`rroqdehw(9
(349)
//
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//
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+
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L
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L
+
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+
+
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+
Ø
¶
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+
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-[T
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Ntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbghlldch`sdkx
adenqdsgdKsnmdnesgdnaidbsoqdehw'B(+qdrtkshmfhmsgdoqnodqrtqe`bd
qd`khy`shnm+`radknv9
(350)
//
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+
B
+
//
L
+
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+
3
-3 1
-
¶
L
¶
L
3
+
V
+
+
H
+
1
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¶
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+
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+
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-
Sgdo`q`kkdkO/bnmrsqtbshnmvhsg`Ksnmdudqaqnnsadfhmrhsr
197
cdqhu`shnmvhsgsgdkdes,sn,qhfgs`rrnbh`shnmqtkd+`radknv9
(351)
//
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+
B
¶
//
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+
H
¶
H
+
V
#
+
L
#
Nmbd`f`hm+adenqdsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrb`mnodq`sd+ntqrodbh`kO/
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'460(adknv(hmrdqsr`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdld`mc
`rrnbh`sdrhs`kksgdv`xsnsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd'U(nmhsrqhfgs+`radknv9
(352)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
Ø
¶
H
+
V
#
+
L
#
L
Sgdehqrsqdftk`qsnmdqtkdsn`ookxhrntqqhrd,enql`shnmqtkdvghbg
`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmdnerxkk`akd@`krnsnrxkk`akdA+`radknv9
(353)
//
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+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
L
¶
H
+
V
#
+
L
#
Sgdmdwsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`klnqogdld
qtkdvghbgcnbjrsgdGsnmdqd`khrlnqogdldsnsgdudqaqnnsnmhsrqhfgsvghkd
chr`rrnbh`shmfsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
198
(354)
//
A
+
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+
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+
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#
//
L
+
H
+ L
¶
H +
L
#
Hsb`mmnvadrddmaxbnlo`qhmfsghrcdqhu`shnmvhsgsgdoqdbdchmf
nmdsg`ssgdmdtsq`khy`shnmnesgdudqaqnnssn`KGqhrhmfsnmdhraqntfgs
`antsaxsgdKsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq!sq`oohmf!sgdonk`qsnmdadsvddm
hsrdke`mcsgdudqaqnnssnmd-Vgdmsgdkdesv`qc,nqqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmf
snmdqtkdr`ookx+sgdonk`qsnmdmustcnbjsnsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akdnmhsr
qhfgsrhmbdsncnnsgdqvhrdvntkcmdbdrrhs`sdbqnrrhmf`rrnbh`shnmkhmdr-Hs
hrsgdkdesv`qc,`mcqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfsnmdqtkdr9s`rjhmsghr
dmuhqnmldmssnchr`rrnbh`sd`snmdnmsgdkdesnqqhfgsqdrodbshudkx-Hshr
sghrchr`rrnbh`shnmehqrsnmdv`x`mcsgdmsgdnsgdqsg`sqdrtksrhmsgd
mdtsq`khy`shnmneG`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsrhmO/bnmrsqtbshnmr-
Bnmshmthmfnmsnehmhrgsgdoqdrdmscdqhu`shnm+`ekn`shmfonk`qsnmd
',√S(hrhmrdqsdc`esdqsgdudqahmO/bnmrsqtbshnmr'rdd'465(adknv(+`rhm
sgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
199
(355)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
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¶
H
+
V
+
+
L
+
Ø
¶
C
+
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+
-[T
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Nmbd`f`hmntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg
nmkxvgdmhsfdsrsnsgdnaidbsoqdehw-Sgdqdrtkshmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhr
dw`bskxsgdr`ld`rsgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnm+even thoughsgdK`mcG
snmdr`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdr`ldUrxkk`akd`qdeqnlcheedqdmstmcdqkxhmf
lnqogdldrsg`msgdk`rsbnmrsqtbshnm-Sgdehm`krsdohmsghrcdqhu`shnm
qdrtksrhmsgdenkknvhmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm9
(356)
//
A
+
B
+
¶
//
L
+
H
+
L
3
-3 1
-
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1
+
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+
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@mnsgdqydqnsdmrdbnmrsqtbshnmvghbgtshkhydr`Ksnmdsnm`k
lnqogdld`rrtaidbsl`qjdqhrsgdqd`khrmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud
vghbghrtrdcsnbnmudxg`ahst`kld`mhmf+`rhmsgddw`lokdradknv9
200
(357) pDP ngwKDYDL mbaLb
13
2 4
"they-(2) pound meat"
4
meLncuLm nzaJYaL mbaLb
3
3
1 3
"the herons-(4) cut meat"
3
Sgdcheedqdmbdvhsgsgdbnmrsqtbshnmr`anudhrsg`s`Ksnmdrtaidbs
l`qjdqhrhmrdqsdcax`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'461(adknv(`mc
`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdlefthmrsd`cnesnsgdright`rvhsgsgdO/
bnmrsqtbshnmrchrbtrrdchlldch`sdkx`anud-Vdvhkkdw`lhmdsgd
cdqhu`shnmnesgddw`lokdvhsgsgdsghqcodqrnmoktq`koqnmntm.o—æ.!sgdx+!
vghbg`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`r
nodq`sdc'vhsgsgdrxlank!O!snhmchb`sdsgdoqnmntmnmsgdrxkk`ahb
shdq(9
(358)
//
P
¶
//
H
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+
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+
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#
+
L
+
L
#
Nmbd`f`hm+adenqdsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrnodq`sd+`lnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'461(adknv(hmrdqsr`Ksnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqhmsghr
bnmrsqtbshnm`mc`rrnbh`sdrhssnsgdehqrsrxkk`akdnmhsrkdes+vhsgnts
chr`rrnbh`shmfsg`srxkk`akdeqnl`mxnsgdqsnmdr+`radknv9
201
(359)
//
P
+
//
H
+
¶
Ø
¶
H
+
V
+
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#
+
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+
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Sgdehqrssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkdvghbgs`jdr
sgdGsnmdnesgdqd`khronk`qsnmd`mc`rrnbh`sdrhssnsgdqhfgsvghkd
chr`rrnbh`shmfsgdsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(360)
//
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+
//
H
+
¶
L
¶
H
+
V
+
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#
+
L
+
L
#
Sghrhmstqmeddcrntqlds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbgeqnmsrsgdmnvchr`rrnbh`sdcK
snmdvghbgb`ldeqnlsgdudqaqnnslnqogdld+`rhmsgdenkknvhmf
qdoqdrdms`shnm9
(361)
//
P
+
//
H
+
¶
L
¶
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
Sgdehm`kqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnm`k
qdfhrsdqnmdmnsbgadenqdsgdGsnmd`rrnbh`sdvhsgsgdudqaqnns'U(+xhdkchmf
sgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnm+`radknv9
202
(362)
//
P
+
//
H
+
1
¶
+
L
¶
L H
3
-
2
V
+
+
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+
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#
-
4
-
Vditrsr`vvg`sg`oodmrsn`mnql`kGsnmdvgdm`Ksnmdrtaidbs
l`qjdqhr`rrnbh`sdcsnhsax`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd-Nmdtmtrt`ksnmd
o`ssdqmbqd`sdcaxsghrqtkdnbbtqrvgdmtmcdqkxhmfK*Gmntmr'vghbg
trt`kkx`qdqd`khydcvhsg`KGqhrhmfsnmdnmsgdhqqnnsr(nbbtq`rrtaidbsr
adenqdrtbg`Kbnmbnqcsnmd+`radknv9
(363) aLmbuPY nzaJYaL mbaLb
3 13
1 3
"the deaf-man-(1) cuts meat"
3
meLpuPY ngwKDYDL mbaLb
3 13
2 4
"the deaf-men-(2) cut meat"
4
Vdvhkkdw`lhmdsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdKsnmdudqaqnnsrdmsdmbdsnrdd
gnvsgdnqcdqhmfnesghro`qshbtk`qlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdadenqdsgd
mnql`ksnmdqtkdrakddcrsgdqhrd,enql`shnmqtkd-Ntqtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqd
vntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`r
nodq`sdc9
(364)
//
A
+
B
¶
//
L
+
H
¶
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
203
Nmbd`f`hm+`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'461(adknv(enqmnm,
oqnfqdrrhudqd`khrhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmrhmsgdydqnsdmrdhmrdqsr`K
snmdrtaidbsl`qjdq`mc`rrnbh`sdrhssnsgdehqrsrxkk`akdnmhsrkdesvghkd
notcdkdshmf`rrnbh`shnmkhmdr`kqd`cx`ss`bgdcsnsg`srxkk`akd'A(-Sghr
qtkdltrsnodq`sdadenqdsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdr+`mcoqnctbdrsgd
enkknvhmfqdrtks9
(365)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
L
¶
H
+
V
+
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#
+
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+
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#
Hshrbqtbh`ksg`smnv+vgdmsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrrb`msgdrsqtbstqd
eqnlkdessnqhfgs+sgdqhrd,enql`shnmqtkdcannotnodq`sdadb`trdrxkk`akd
Ahr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsnsvncheedqdmssnmdr-Sgdehqrssnmdqtkdsn
nodq`sdhrsgtrsgdGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdG
snmdnesgdonk`qqd`khrl`qjdqsnsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akdnmhsrqhfgs
chr`rrnbh`shmf`ssgdr`ldshldsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akdeqnlsgdsnmd
`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(366)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
L
¶
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
Sghrhmstqmeddcrntqlds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbgeqnmsrsgdKsnmdsg`sg`r
itrsaddmchr`rrnbh`sdc+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
204
(367)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
¶
L
¶
H
+
V
+
I
#
+
L
+
L
#
Sgdk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdhrnmbd`f`hmsqhffdqdcaxsghrmnveqnmsdc
ekn`shmfKsnmd+qdrtkshmfhm`knvdqhmfnesgdsnmdqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbgnm
sgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd+`rrgnvmhmsgdenkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(368)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
H
+
3
-
1
¶
+
L
¶
L H
3
-
2
+
V
+
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+
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#
-
4
-
Sghrakddchmfnesgdqhrd,enql`shnmqtkdjddorsgdMfxdla——m
k`mft`fdeqnl`bpthqhmf`sgqdd,snmdc'202(snmdfkhcdnmsgdrtqe`bd-
Sgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnmrvdqdsgdk`rsnesgdydqnsdmrdbnmrsqtbshnmr
vghbgs`jd`Ksnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq-Sgdnmkxydqnsdmrdbnmrsqtbshnm
vghbgrshkkqdpthqdrdw`lhm`shnmhrsgdoqnfqdrrhudhqqd`khrhlodqedbshud
vghbgs`jdr`Gsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsnsgdkdes+`rb`m
adrddmhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokdr9
205
(369) aN neL zKaYMa mbaLb
31 3
2 5
"he-(1) is probably cutting meat"
5
meLpuNY neL zKaYMa mbaLb
3 31
3
2 5
"the blind-men-(2) are probably
5
cutting meat"
eLncuNm neL gwMDYMD mbaLb "the heron-(9) is probably
3 31
3
4 5
5
pounding meat"
Dw`lhmhmfaqhdekxsgdk`rsdw`lokdbhsdc`anud+hsrtmcdqkxhmf
rsqtbstqdvntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkd
g`rnodq`sdc'vhsgsgdrxlank!O!qdoqdrdmshmfsgdoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq
.md∆.nmsgdrxkk`akhbshdq(9
(370)
//
A
+
B
¶
P
#
//
L
+
L
¶
L
#
Sgdnmkxlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'468(adknv(sn`eedbssghr
bnmrsqtbshnmhrnmdvghbghmrdqsr`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdld`rrtaidbs
l`qjdq`mc`rrnbh`sdrhssnsgdehqrsrxkk`akdnmhsrkdesvhsgnts
chr`rrnbh`shmf`mxsnmdr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`mcsghrnmkxenq
oqnfqdrrhudhqqd`khrhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmrhmsgdydqnsdmrd-Sgd
qdrtkshmfbg`mfdr`qdrgnvmadknv9
206
(371)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
L
+
Ø
¶
P
#
¶
L
#
H
Rhmbdmdhsgdqnentqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdrhrsqhffdqdcaxsghronqshnmne
ntqbnmrsqtbshnm+sgdrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhrpthsdrsq`hfgsenqv`qc+`r
adknv9
(372)
//
A
+
B
+
//
L
+
L
+
3
-
3
¶
P
#
H
¶
L
#
1
-
3
-
Sghrdmcrntqrdbshnmnmsgdu`qh`shnmrnesgdrtaidbsl`qjdqvhsgsgd
u`qhntrsdmrdr+`rodbsr`mclncdrnesgdhmchb`shudlnnc-Sgdenkknvhmf
rdbshnmvhkkdw`lhmdrhlhk`qhmsdq`bshnmvhsgsgdudqa`kbnmrsqtbshnm+
sgntfghsvhkkadadsvddmsgdudqa`mchsrenkknvhmfnaidbsr-
207
2.4.2. Between object and verb
Itrs`r`rtaidbsl`qjdqnbbtqr`ssgditmbstqdne`rtaidbsvhsgsgd
enkknvhmfudqaogq`rd+rnsnn`mnaidbsl`qjdqnbbtqr`ssgditmbstqdne`
udqavhsghsrenkknvhmfnaidbs-Khjdsgdl`inqhsxnertaidbsl`qjdqrvghbg
u`qhdc`bbnqchmfsnsgdmntmbk`rrnesgdrtaidbs+ntqnmdtmhptdnaidbs
l`qjdq`krnu`qhdr`bbnqchmfsnsgdmntmbk`rrnesgdnaidbs-Vghkdsgd
rtaidbsl`qjdqv`rnesdmitrssgdbnmbnqcsnmdlnqogdld+sgdnaidbs
l`qjdqg`r`cheedqdmsu`qh`shnm+sgntfghssnnhrfnudqmdcaxsgdmntm
bk`rrnesgdgd`cmntm-Sgdnaidbsl`qjdqhmMfxdla——mg`rsvna`rhb
rg`odr+`rrtll`qhydchmsgdenkknvhmfbg`qs9
(373)
Object Marker Variants
Form
Classes
Prefixes
/ J-/
2,4,5,6
leL-/meL-/meLN-
/Ø/
3,8,9,10
(eL-)/(eL)N-
1 and 7
(aL-)/(aL)N-
Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qskhrsrsgdsvncheedqdmsenqlrnesgdnaidbsl`qjdq
`knmfvhsgsgqddcheedqdmsfqntornemntmbk`rrdr`mcsgdhqqdrodbshud
mntmbk`rroqdehwdr'sgdenqlrhmo`qdmsgdrdrnmkxadhmfnoshnm`kkx
onrrhakd`ssgdadfhmmhmfnerdmsdmbdr(-Hsb`madrddmsg`sd`bgu`qh`ms
enqlnesgdnaidbsl`qjdqhr`rrnbh`sdcvhsg`cheedqdmstypenemntm
208
bk`rroqdehw-HshrnmkxnaidbsrvhsgetkkBU'M(oqdehwdrsg`ss`jdsgd
ekn`shmfGsnmdnaidbsl`qjdqoqdehw-Sgdrdbnmcenqlhr`ydqn
lnqogdld'nqsgd`ardmbdne`l`qjdq(vghbghroqdrdms'nq`ardms(enq
`kksgdnsgdqmntmbk`rrdr+sgnrdsg`s`skd`rsnoshnm`kkxb`mrs`qsvhsg`
unvdk-Vdg`udchuhcdcsghrk`rsfqntonemntmbk`rrdrtohmsnsvn
rtafqntoradb`trdnesgdhqdwsqdldkxchudqfdmsadg`uhnq-Sgdehqrs
rtafqntobnms`hmrsgdentqmntmbk`rrdrvgnrdoqdehw`skd`rsnoshnm`kkx
adfhmrvhsgsgdunvdk!d-!Sgdrdoqdehwdrknrdsgdhqrxkk`ahbhsxhmnaidbs
onrhshnm+`oqnbdrrsg`sb`qqhdrvhsghsbdqs`hmsnm`kodqstqa`shnmr-Sgd
nsgdqrtafqntohmbktcdrsgdsvnmntmbk`rrdrvgnrdoqdehwdr`skd`rs
noshnm`kkxadfhmvhsgsgdunvdk!`-!Sgdrdoqdehwdrcnmnsknrdsgdhq
rxkk`ahbhsxhmnaidbsonrhshnm+atshmrsd`csgdx`qd`ss`bgdcsnsgd
oqdbdchmfvnqcax`qtkdneunvdk`rrhlhk`shnm+`qtkdvghbgqdrtksrhm
bdqs`hmq`sgdqtmbnllnmsnm`kodqstqa`shnmr-Sgdqd`cdqvgnhrhmsdqdrsdc
hmsgdu`qhntrbnmbnqcoqnodqshdrnesgdMfxdla——mmntmbk`rrrxrsdl
b`mehmc`cchshnm`khmenql`shnmhm@mcdqrnm'087/`(-
Vdvhkkadfhmntqdw`lhm`shnmnesgdu`qh`msnaidbsl`qjdqenqlr
vhsgsgdydqnl`qjdqbg`q`bsdqhrshbnemntmbk`rrdr2+7+8`mc0/-Sgd
nmkxnaidbseqnmsgdrdbk`rrdrsg`sg`raddmtrdchmsgdoqdrdms
chrrdqs`shnmntsrhcdnesghrrdbshnmhrsgdmntm.l–a`∆a.!ld`s-!Sghr
o`qshbtk`qmntmhreqnlmntmbk`rr8hmsgdrhmftk`q`mcv`rohbjdc`rsgd
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209
`kqd`cxbnlokhb`sdcsnm`kcdqhu`shnmrax`cchmfdwsq`snmdr`mcrxkk`akdr-
Vdfhudsgdenkknvhmfentqrdmsdmbdr`r`a`rdo`q`chfl+adb`trdd`bgne
sgdentqnaidbsmntmr'`kkeqnlmntmbk`rr8(hrqd`khydcnmsgdr`ldsnmd
sg`shsg`rvgdmhsnbbtqrhmhrnk`shnm9
(374) aL kaL zaLY mbTag
3
3
3
34
aL kaL zaLY mbaLb
3
3
3
3
aL kaL zaLY mbKim
3
3
3
2
aL kaL zaLY nzsoN
3
3
3
31
"he cut the kolanut"
(yesterday)
"he cut the meat"
(yesterday)
"he cut the forest"
(yesterday)
"he cut the cloth"
(yesterday)
Sgntfg`kknesgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdr`qdpthsdrsq`hfgsenqv`qc+vd
vhkkdw`lhmdsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdk`rsdw`lokdsnrddsgdshlhmf`mc
deedbsnesgdcdrxkk`ahehb`shnmnesgdgnlnqf`mhbm`r`koqdehw.M,.nmsgd
naidbsmntm-Sgdtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdnesg`sdw`lokdhmbktcdr`sdmrd
l`qjdq'S(+`qd`khronk`qsnmdlnqogdld'Kadenqd`Gsnmdqnns(+`udqa
qnns'U(`mc`mnaidbs'oqdehw!@!`mcqnns!A!(vghbg`ood`q`radknv
`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
210
(375)
#
T
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
A
+
B
//
+
H
¶
L
+
H
//
Nmbd`f`hm+vdg`udonrhsdcsgddwhrsdmbdne`ogq`rdantmc`xl`qjdq'ï(
adsvddmsgdudqa`kbnmrshstdmsr`mcsgdenkknvhmfnaidbsmntmogq`rd-Sghr
ogq`rdl`qjdqvhkkadrhfmhehb`mshmqduhrhmf`mnsgdqnentqsnm`klnqogdld
cnbjhmfqtkdr+dw`lhmdcetqsgdqadknv-
Sgdehqrsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kcdrxkk`ahehb`shnmqtkd
'rdd'462(adknv(vghbgnlhsrsgdrxkk`ahbrs`strnesgdmntmbk`rroqdehwenq
mntmreqnlbk`rrdr2+7+8`mc0/vgdmsgdmntmhr`mnaidbs-Sghrqtkdcdkdsdr
rxkk`akd@vghkdkd`uhmfadghmc`ekn`shmfKsnmd+`radknv9
(376)
Ø
#
T
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
A
+
B
//
+
H
¶
L
+
H
//
@mnsgdqlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'cdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-
`anud(nodq`sdrnmkxnmonrhshudO1odqedbshudrdmsdmbdrkhjdsgdnmdhmenbtr
gdqd-Hs'rdd'452(adknv(hmrdqsr`rodbh`kKsnmdinsidesgdonk`qqd`khrsnmd
lnqogdld`mc`rrnbh`sdrsghrKsnmdansgsnsgdkdes`mcsnsgdqhfgs+`radknv9
211
(377)
#
T
#
#
L
#
Ø L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
L
+
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//
+
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//
L
Nmbdntqqdftk`qsnmdqtkdradfhmsnnodq`sd+sgdqhrhmfsnmdvghbgv`r
bqd`sdcnmsgdudqaqnns'U(eddcrntqqhrd,cdkdshnmqtkdvghbgnodq`sdr`r
adknv9
(378)
#
T
#
#
L
#
L L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
L
+
B
//
+
H
//
Ø
Sgdmdwssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdmnvekn`shmfKsnmdeqnlsgdnaidbsoqdehw
snsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd'U(vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdr`ldrxkk`akdeqnlsgdK
snmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(379)
#
T
#
#
L
#
+
L L
+
V
¶
¶
L
+
B
//
+
H
//
Sghrhmstqmeddcrntqqhrd,enql`shnmqtkdrhmbdansgsgdK`mcGsnmdnesgd
naidbsqdl`hmhmsgdr`ldvnqc`mc`qd`rrnbh`sdcsnsvnrdo`q`sdrxkk`akdr
212
'dudmhenmdnesgnrdrxkk`akdrhrhm`oqdbdchmfogq`rd(-Sghrqhrd,enql`shnmqtkd
xhdkcrsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdrsqtbstqdrhmbdmdhsgdqnesgdcnvmrsdoqtkdr`ookhdrsn
sghrrsqtbstqd+qdrtkshmfhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(380)
#
T
#
#
L
#
-
3
-
+
L L
+
V
¶
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+
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//
L
+
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3
-3 1
Sgdoqdbdchmfo`q`chfl`mccdqhu`shnm`qdbg`q`bsdqhrshbnenaidbsrvhsgnts
`mnudqsnaidbsl`qjdqvghbgenkknvudqarvghbgdmcnm`Ksnmd'hmbktchmfsgd
Ksnmdrteehwnehlodqedbshud`rodbs(-Ansgsgdo`q`chfl`mccdqhu`shnmbg`mfd
rhfmhehb`mskxvgdmsgdnaidbshroqdbdcdcax`udqavghbgdmcrnm`Gsnmd-Sgd
enkknvhmfo`q`chflnesgdr`ldnaidbsrhm`mdf`shudO1odqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnm
hrdrodbh`kkxqdud`khmf9
(381) aL kaL teL zaJY mbaLg wDJ
3
3
3
1
3
1
aL kaL teL zaJY mbaLb wDJ
3
3
3
1
3
1
aL kaL teL zaJY mbKim wKD
3
3
3
1
2
3
aL kaL teL zaJY nzsKo wDJ
3
3
3
1
2
2
"he didn’t cut the kolanut"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t cut the meat"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t cut the forest"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t cut the cloth"
(yesterday)
213
Sgdsnmdodqstqa`shnmrsg`svdrg`kkdw`lhmdhmcds`hk`qdsgdsvn
cdqhu`shnmrvghbgfhudqhrdsnsvntmcdqkhmdcvnqcr`anud+`ehm`kmdf`shud
bkhshb.v—æ.vghbghrqd`khydcvhsg`cnvmrsdoed`stqd`mcntqK*Gmntmvgnrd
qnnshrtrt`kkxqd`khydcnm`KGqhrhmfsnmdatshrqd`khydcgdqdnm`
cnvmrsdoodcGsnmd-Vdvhkkdw`lhmdsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdK*Gnaidbsmntm
ehqrs+hsro`ssdqm`ood`qhmf`radknv`esdqsgdnodq`shnmnesgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmd
l`oohmfqtkd'vhsgsgdbnllnmaho`qshsdMDFlnqogdld.sd∆---v—æ.adhmf
rxlankhydcax!M!`mc!V!nmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq(9
(382)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
Sgdehqrsqtkdsn`eedbssghrrsqtbstqdhrsgdmntmcdrxkk`ahehb`shnmqtkdvghbg
nmbd`f`hmrkd`udradghmc`ekn`shmfKsnmdvghkdcdkdshmfsgdmntmbk`rroqdehw
nmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq'@(+`radknv9
(383)
Ø
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
Sgdmdwssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdld
qtkdvghbgrddlrsng`udsvnrdo`q`sddmuhqnmldmsrhmvghbgsncnhsrvnqj+
`rrnbh`shmfansgsgdqd`khronk`qKsnmd`mcsgdnaidbsoqdehwKsnmdsnsgd
214
`ci`bdmsrxkk`akdrnmsgdhqkdes-Hme`bs+sgdqtkdnmkxnodq`sdrnmsgdKqd`khr
onk`qsnmd-Vdsgdqdenqdmddcrnldkhlhshmfbnmchshnmnmsgdnodq`shnmnesghr
qtkdvghbgvhkkaknbjhsr`ookhb`shnmvgdmdudqhsvntkcbqnrr`ogq`rdantmc`qx
'ï(sn`rrnbh`sdvhsg`rxkk`akd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsn`mhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf
Gsnmd-Vdsgdqdenqdlnchexntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfsnmdqtkd'sgdoqdkhlhm`qx
enqltk`shnmv`roqdrdmsdchm'27(`anud(+`radknv9
(384) Rule 5’:
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
#
+
T
+
+
L
+
Condition: This rule shall not operate if it would
associate the floating L tone across a phrase
boundary to a syllable already associated
with an immediately preceding H tone.
Sghrqtkd`rmnvlnchehdc`ookhdrnmkxsnsgdqd`khrKsnmdonk`qsnmd
nesgdbtqqdmso`ssdqmtmcdqdw`lhm`shnm-Vgdmhs`ookhdr+hsg`rsgd
enkknvhmfqdrtks9
(385)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
L
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
#
H
//
215
Rhmbdsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfqtkdhraknbjdceqnl`ookxhmfhmsghr
bnmrsqtbshnm+sgdKsnmdkdesekn`shmfadenqdsgdGsnmdnesgdnaidbsmntm
qnnssqhffdqrntqcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg
`ssg`sonhms-Sgdqdrtkshmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhr9
(386)
#
N
#
#
L
#
-
+
V
¶
L
+
H
¶
3
-
1
-
L
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
#
H
//
2
-
2
Vghkdsgdoqdbdchmfcdqhu`shnmdmcdcvhsgrdmsdmbdehm`knaidbs`mc
MDFbkhshbqd`khydcnmcnvmsdoodcG'1(enkknvdcax`G'`krnqd`khydc
nmsgdmnvknvdqsnmdkdudk(+sgdenkknvhmfcdqhu`shnmvhkkdw`lhmd
naidbsrvhsgtmcdqkxhmfK*GKsnmdo`ssdqmrvghbgqdrtkshm`rdmsdmbd
sg`sdmcrhmtwocnvmrsdoodcGsnmdr+qd`khydcnmsnmdkdudkr'1(`mc'2(
qdrodbshudkx-Sghrcdqhu`shnmrs`qsrvhsg`mtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdvghbg
`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdhmhsh`kkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`r
nodq`sdc9
(387)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
¶
L
+
H L
#
H
//
Sgdehqrsqtkdsnlnchexsghrrsqtbstqdhrsgdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`k
cdrxkk`ahehb`shnmqtkdvghbgjddorsgdKsnmdnesgdnaidbsoqdehwats
cdkdsdrsgdrxkk`ahbrs`mchmfnesgdm`r`kbnmrnm`ms'@(+`radknv9
216
(388)
Ø
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
¶
L
+
H L
#
H
//
Mdws+ntqlnchehdckdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkd`ookhdr
nmkxsnsgdKsnmdnesgdqd`khronk`qsnmdlnqogdld`mcmnssnsgdrsq`mcdcK
snmdnesgdnaidbsmntmoqdehwrhmbdsg`svntkcld`mbqnrrhmf`ogq`rdantmc`qx
sn`rxkk`akd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcvhsg`mhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfGsnmd-Sgd
qdrtkshrsgdqdenqdsgdenkknvhmf9
(389)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
L
+
B
#
W
//
+
H L
#
H
//
Mnv+bqtbh`kkx+sgdlds`sgdrhrqtkdcndrmns`ookxsnrxkk`akdAadb`trdsg`s
qtkdnmkx`ookhdrvgdmsgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdhr`rrnbh`sdcsn`Ksnmd-Rhmbdsgd
lds`sgdrhrqtkdcndrmns`ookx+ntqcnvmrsdoqtkdhr`kknvdcsn`ookxsvhbd+
knvdqhmfsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbgnmrxkk`akdA`mc`rdbnmcmnsbgnm
rxkk`akdV+qdrtkshmfhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(390)
#
N
#
#
L
#
-
+
V
¶
L
+
H
¶
3
-
1
-
L
+
B
#
W
//
+
H L
#
H
//
2
-
3
217
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqdw`lhm`shnmnemntmrvghbgs`jd`ydqnnaidbsl`qjdqhm
qd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr-
Sgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdrdr`ldnaidbsrvgdmsgdxnbbtqhlldch`sdkx
enkknvhmf`mhqqd`khrodqedbshududqaqnnshrrkhfgskxcheedqdms+`rsgdenkknvhmf
E2o`q`chflrtffdrsr9
(391) aL lMu zKaY mbUag
3
4
3
67
aL lMu zKaY mbMab
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
"he will cut the forest"
4
aL lMu zKaY nzsKo
3
"he will cut the meat"
6
aL lMu zKaY mbKim
3
"he will cut the kolanut"
"he will cut the cloth"
4
Sgdnaidbsrhmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrtmhenqlkxadfhmvhsgcnvmrsdo-Dudm
sgdnaidbsvhsgtmcdqkxhmfK,Ksnmdvgnrdqnnshrtrt`kkxqd`khydcnm`knv,
cnvmrsdo,knvsnmdadenqdo`trdhroqdbdcdcaxxds`rdbnmccnvmrsdonmnmd
hmchuhct`krxkk`akd-Vdr`vhmrdbshnm1-2-3-`anudsg`sGsnmdrxkk`akdrb`mad
cntakd,cnvmrsdoodcnm`rhmfkdrxkk`akd+atssgdsvnmnsbgcqnohmsnm`k
qdfhrsdqv`rl`cdhmnmdrsdo-Gdqd+vhsgsvncnvmrsdornmsgdr`ldrxkk`akd
vhsgKsnmdr+sgdsvnmnsbgcqnohrjdosrdo`q`sdqdrtkshmfhm`snmdfkhcd'56
`anud(-
218
Adb`trdsgdtmcdqkxhmfK,Gsnmdnaidbs'tmcdqkhmdc`anud(hr`f`hm
qd`khydcnm`cnvmrsdoodcGsnmd+vdvhkkrdkdbssg`so`qshbtk`qrdmsdmbd
`rbg`q`bsdqhrshbnesgdfqnto+`mcdw`lhmdhsrcdqhu`shnmvhsgrodbh`k
`ssdmshnmsnsgddeedbsnesgdhmrdqshnmnesgdhqqd`khronk`qsnmd-Sghr
o`qshbtk`qrdmsdmbdg`r`mtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdkhjdsgdenkknvhmf`esdqsgd
kdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(392)
#
F
#
V
¶
A
+
B
//
#
L
#
H
¶
L
+
H
//
@rtrt`k+sgdehqrslnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgdcdrxkk`ahehb`shnm
qtkd'rdd'462(adknv(vghbgcdkdsdrsgdrxkk`ahbhsxnesgdnaidbsm`r`koqdehw
'@(+qdrtkshmfhmsgdenkknvhmf9
(393)
Ø
#
F
#
V
¶
A
+
B
//
#
L
#
H
¶
L
+
H
//
Rhmbdsgdrsq`mcdcKsnmdeqnlsgdnaidbsoqdehwhroqdbdcdcax`ogq`rd
antmc`qx'ï(`mc`rxkk`akd`rrnbhsdcsn`mhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfGsnmd+sgd
kdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdlnqogdldqtkdcndrmns`ookxsnsghrbnmrsqtbshnm-
@esdqsgdsnmdqtkdrg`udg`csgdhqbg`mbdsn`ookx+`k`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`k
qtkdhmrdqsrsgqddrdo`q`sdonk`qsnmdr'k`adkkdc!,√S!hmsgdqdoqdrdms`shnm
219
adknvitrssnrgnvsgdhqonrhshnmadenqd`mc`esdqd`bg!udqa!hmbktchmfsgd
`twhkh`qxudqa'k`adkkdc!E!(vghbghrtrdcsnl`qjetstqdshld(-Sgdr`ldqtkd
cdkdsdr`mxekn`shmfsnmdadenqdsgdnaidbsmntmqnns+`radknv9
(394)
#
#
Ø
+
F
#
+
L
#
-[T
Ø
+
V
+
+
H
+
-[T
¶
Ø
¶
-[T
L
+
B
//
+
H
//
Ø
Sgdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbghmrdqsrsgdrdonk`qsnmdr`r`l`qjne
hqqd`khrlncdltrscdehmdsgdm`stqdned`bgonk`qsnmdsnadsgdoppositene
sgdehqrsassociatedsnmdvghbghlldch`sdkxenkknvr-Rhmbdsgdnaidbsoqdehw
snmdhrcdkdsdchmsghrdmuhqnmldmshehshrekn`shmf+d`bgnesgdonk`q',√S(snmdr
b`mmnvd`rhkxadrodbhehdc+`radknv9
(395)
#
+
F
#
+
V
+
¶
+
B
//
# -[T +
L
# -[T +
H
+ -[T ¶
+
H
//
H
L
L
Sghrkd`udr`onk`qekn`shmfsnmdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgqdd`rrnbh`sdc
snmdr+vghbgsqhffdqrntqcnvmrsdoqtkdsgqddrdo`q`sdshldr+knvdqhmfsgdsnm`k
qdfhrsdqnmdmnsbgd`bgshld+`radknv9
220
(396)
#
#
H
+
F
#
+
L
#
4
-
-
L
+
V
+
+
H
+
3
-
L
¶
+
B
//
¶
+
H
//
4
Adb`trdnesgdsgqddrdo`q`sdqdfhrsdqknvdqhmfr+sgdGsnmd`ssgddmcnesgd
oqdbdchmfrdmsdmbdhrqd`khydcognmdshb`kkxnmohsbgkdudk'3(hmrsd`cneohsbg
kdudk'0(-
@mdudmfqd`sdqmtladqnecnvmrsdornbbtqvgdmsgdoqdbdchmfo`q`chflhr
l`cdmdf`shud+`rsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokdrhkktrsq`sd9
(397) aL teL lMu zKaY mbMag wDJ
3
3
4
3
6
4
aL teL lMu zKaY mbMab wDJ
3
3
4
3
"he won’t cut the kolanut"
6
"he won’t cut the meat"
4
aL teL lMu zKaY mbKim wKD "he won’t cut the forest"
3
3
4
3
4
5
aL teL lMu zKaY nzsKo wDJ
3
3
4
3
4
"he won’t cut the cloth"
4
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdnaidbsmntmqnnsr`qd`kkqd`khydcnmcnvmrsdoodcsnmdr+`
e`bsvghbgonhmsrsnsgdhmektdmbdne`m`ci`bdmsekn`shmfonk`qsnmd-Enqsghr
o`q`chfl+vdrg`kknmkxdw`lhmdsgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdrdmsdmbdbnms`hmhmfsgd
'tmcdqkhmdc(cnvmrsdoodcGsnmdnmsgdmdf`shudbkhshb.v—æ.-Sghro`qshbtk`q
221
rdmsdmbd`ood`qr`radknv`esdqsgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(398)
#
F
#
V
¶
A
+
B
#
W
//
#
L
#
H
¶
L
+
H L
#
H
//
Sgdehqrsqtkdsnlnchexsghrrsqtbstqdhrntqcdrxkk`ahehb`shnmqtkd
vghbgnmbd`f`hmcdkdsdrsgdrxkk`ahbrs`strnesgdnaidbsmntmbk`rr
oqdehw+`radknv9
(399)
Ø
#
F
#
V
¶
A
+
B
#
W
//
#
L
#
H
¶
L
+
H L
#
H
//
@ssghronhms+sgdqdftk`qsnmdqtkdr`qd`kknvdcsnnodq`sd+atsmnmd`qd
`ookhb`akd-Sgdrsq`mcdcKsnmdeqnlsgdnaidbsoqdehwhrmns`rrnbh`sdcsnhsr
kdesaxsgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkdadb`trdhshroqdbdcdc
ax`ogq`rdantmc`qx'ï(`mc`rxkk`akd`rrnbh`sdcsn`mhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf
Gsnmd-Khjdvhrd+sgdlds`sgdrhrqtkde`hkrsneqnmssgdKsnmdnesgdnaidbsqnns
'A(adb`trdsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf`rrnbh`sdcsnmdhr`Gsnmd-Sgdmdws
qtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgtrsgdk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbghmrdqsronk`qsnmdr
',√S(hlldch`sdkxadenqd`mc`esdq`kk!udqar!hmhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr+cdkdshmf
`ssgdr`ldshldsgdrsq`mcdcKsnmdnesgdnaidbsoqdehw+`radknv9
222
(400)
#
#
Ø
+
F
#
+
L
#
-[T
Ø
+
V
+
+
H
+
-[T
¶
Ø
¶
-[T
L
+
B
#
W
//
+
H L
#
H
//
Ø
Sgdonk`qsnmdr`qdmnvcdsdqlhmdcsnadnoonrhsdhmm`stqdsnsgdhq
enkknvhmf`ci`bdmssnmdrnmsgdsnm`kshdq-Sgdrdonk`qsnmdrsgtrsqhffdqsgd
qdfhrsdq,knvdqhmfcnvmrsdoqtkdsgqddshldr-Sgdr`ldqtkdhrsqhffdqdcnmd
`cchshnm`kshldaxsgdekn`shmfKsnmdnerxkk`akdAvghbgv`rmnslds`sgdrhydc
hmsghrdmuhqnmldms-Sgdognmdshbqd`khy`shnmnesgdrdmsdmbd,ehm`kGsnmdhr
sgtrentqmnsbgdrknvdq'ohsbgkdudk4hmrsd`cne0(+`radknv9
(401)
#
+
F
#
+
V
+
¶
+
B
#
W
//
# -[T +
L
# -[T +
H
+ -[T ¶
+
H L
#
H
//
4
-
5
H
-
L
4
-
L
3
-
Hsrgntkcadldmshnmdcgdqdsg`ssgdcnvmrsdoodcGsnmdqd`khydcnmsgd
rdmsdmbd,ehm`kmdf`shudbkhshb.v—æ.`anudnbbtqrhmitrssgddmuhqnmldmsvgdqd
vdg`udbnldsnadkhdudsg`ssgdmnql`klds`sgdrhrqtkdhraknbjdceqnl
nodq`shmfnmsgdoqdbdchmfmntmqnns`mcsghrhrrsqnmfhmcdodmcdmslnshu`shnm
enqsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdehm`kekn`shmfKsnmdhmsgdtmcdqkxhmfkdwhb`krsqtbstqdne
223
rtbgmntmr-Hs`krnkdmcr`cchshnm`khmcdodmcdmslnshu`shnmsnsgdoqdrdms
rsqtbstqdnentqlds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbgcndrmnsnodq`sdhmitrssgnrd
dmuhqnmldmsrvgdqdhshrmnsmddcdc-
Svn`cchshnm`kbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbgaxlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkddmctovhsg
`onk`qsnmdsnm`klnqogdlditrsadenqdsgdnaidbs'khjdsgdhqqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmrrgnvm`anud(+`qdsgdO/`mcO0qd`khronrhshudodqedbshud
rdmsdmbdr-Vdr`vhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anudsg`ssgdO0onrhshudodqedbshud
bnmrsqtbshnmv`roqna`akxlncdkdcnmsgdO/bnmrdbtshudbnmrsqtbshnm+rnsghr
rhlhk`qhsxnenaidbsl`qjhmfhrmnsrtqoqhrhmf-@sxohb`kO/bnmrsqtbshnmvntkc
`ood`q`radknv9
(402) aL zaNY mbUag
3 31
45
aL zaNY mbMab
3 31
"he just cut the forest"
2
aL zaNY nzsKo
3 31
"he just cut the meat"
4
aL zaNY mbKim
3 31
"he just cut the kolanut"
"he just cut the cloth"
2
Nmbdsgdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'465(adknv(hmrdqsrsgdO/onk`qsnmd
`esdqsgdudqaqnns+hsrcdqhu`shnmoqnbddcrltbgkhjdsgdhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr
224
vditrsdw`lhmdc+qdrtkshmfhmcnvmrsdoodcrtqe`bdsnmdrenq`kknentq
tmcdqkxhmfmntmsnm`ko`ssdqmr-
Vdmnvkd`udadghmcsgdgnlnqf`mhbm`r`kmntmbk`rroqdehwdr`mcstqmsn
snsgnrdbk`rrdrvghbgs`jd`etkkBU'M(oqdehw-Vdvhkkbgnrdsgdmntmrne
bk`rr4vgnrdoqdehwhr.kd∆,.`rqdoqdrdms`shudnesghrfqnto-@qdoqdrdms`shud
o`q`chflvhsgmntmreqnlsgdentqsnmdo`ssdqmrvntkcadsgdenkknvhmf9
(403) aL kaL teL zaJY leJpfoLm wDJ
3
3
3
1
1
3
1
aL kaL teL zaJY leJpfoL wDJ
3
3
3
1
1
3
1
aL kaL teL zaJY leJpfKC wKD
3
3
3
1
1
2
3
aL kaL teL zaJY leJkwFKe wDJ
3
3
3
1
1
2
2
"he didn’t cut the stomach"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t cut the kolanut"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t cut the garbage"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t cut the bamboo"
(yesterday)
Sgdlnrsmnshbd`akdsnmdodqstqa`shnmhmsgdoqdbdchmfo`q`chflhr
sg`s`kknesgdnaidbsrvgnrdKsnmdmntmbk`rroqdehw.kd∆,.hrmnql`kkx
qd`khydcnm`Ksnmdhmhrnk`shnm`mchmrtaidbsonrhshnmhrgdqdqd`khydcnm
`odqstqadcGsnmd-Hshroqdbhrdkxsghrodqstqa`shnmenq`kkmntmrvgnrd
oqdehwdrg`udrhlhk`qrxkk`akdrsqtbstqdsg`sg`rlnshu`sdcntqonrhshmf`
225
Gsnmdnaidbsl`qjdqoqdehwvghbgoqdbdcdrsgdnaidbsmntmbk`rroqdehw
hm`kkrtbgbnmrsqtbshnmr-
Nmbd`f`hm+vdvhkkdw`lhmdhmcds`hksgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdrdmsdmbd
vgdqdvdehmcsgd'tmcdqkhmdc(cnvmrsdoodcGsnmdnmsgdrdmsdmbd,ehm`k
mdf`shudbkhshb.v—æ.-Rhmbdsgdnaidbshmsghrrdmsdmbdg`r`mtmcdqkxhmf
K*GKsnmdo`ssdqm+ntqtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdvntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdq
sgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc9
(404)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
H
+
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
+
H L
#
H
//
Rhmbdsgdmntmbk`rroqdehwhmsghrb`rdhr`etkkBU'B(rxkk`akd'@(+hs
cndrmnstmcdqfnntqcdrxkk`ahehb`shnmqtkd`rchcsgdrxkk`ahbm`r`k
bnmrnm`msrvghbgl`qjdcsgdmntmbk`rrdrchrbtrrdc`anud-Sgdqdenqd+
sgdehqrssnmdqtkdsn`ookxsnsghrrsqtbstqdhrntqkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmd
snm`klnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdKsnmdnesgdqd`khronk`qsnmd
lnqogdldsnsgdMDFl`qjdqrxkk`akd'M(vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdKsnmd
`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(405)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
H
+
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
+
H L
#
H
//
Sgdmdwssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrsgdqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdrsgdGsnmdnaidbsl`qjdqlnqogdldsn
226
sgdenkknvhmfmntmbk`rroqdehw'@(vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdKsnmd
`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(406)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L
+
V
¶
+
H
¶
H
+
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
+
H L
#
H
//
Mnetqsgdqsnmdqtkdrnodq`sdnmsghro`ssdqm-Sgdlds`sgdrhrqtkdhr
aknbjdc`ssvnok`bdr-Hsb`mmnsnodq`sdnmdhsgdqrxkk`akd@nqAadb`trd
hmd`bgb`rdsg`srxkk`akdhroqdbdcdcax`rxkk`akd`rrnbh`sdcsn`Gsnmd-
Ansgsgdekn`shmfKsnmdr`qdkdesvgdqdsgdxnqhfhm`sdc`mcd`bgnmd
sqhffdqrsgdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg+
qdrtkshmfhmsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmrgnvmadknv9
(407)
#
N
#
#
L
#
-
+
V
¶
L
+
H
¶
H
3
-
1
-
1
+
A
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
+
H L
#
H
//
-
2
-
3
Hsrgntkcadmnshbdcsg`ssgdekn`shmfGsnmdnaidbsl`qjdqcdrbqhadc
`anudltrsg`udsgdogq`rdantmc`qxnmhsrkdesadb`trdhehsv`rnmhsr
qhfgs+sgdkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkdvntkc`rrnbh`sd
sgdGsnmdsnsgdnaidbsoqdehwatsvntkcmnschr`rrnbh`sdsgdsnmd`kqd`cx
`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`snmdsg`shrbqtbh`kenqntqcnvmrsdoqtkdr-Sgtr+sgd
ekn`shmfGsnmdnaidbsl`qjdqhrcdehmhsdkx`oqd,oqdehwnmsgdnaidbs-
227
Sgdehm`ku`qh`shnmnesgdnaidbsl`qjdqhrmns`s`kkbkd`q`ssgd
oqdrdmslnldms-Vdvhkkonrhs+a`rdcnmsgdc`s``sg`mc+sg`smntm
bk`rrdr0`mc6cnmnsg`ud`mnaidbsl`qjdqoqdrdms-Vdonrhs+enqsgd
lnldmssg`ssgdtmtrt`ked`stqdrnesgdenkknvhmfo`q`chflnebk`rr6
mntmrhmsgdnaidbsonrhshnmhritrssgdqdrtksnesgdm`stqd`mcshlhmfne
ntqunvdk`rrhlhk`shnmqtkd-Sgdtmtrt`kbg`q`bsdqnesgdenkknvhmf
dw`lokdrhrnmkxok`hmvgdmnmdqdldladqrsg`ssgdrdrdmsdmbdr`qd
odqedbshud+`mcsgtrcnmnsg`ud`mxudqarteehwnmsgdtmcdqkxhmfkdudk-
Ntqtmtrt`ko`q`chfl9
(408) aL kaL teL gwKDYDJ twF`Y
b wDJ "he didn’t pound the cane"
3
3
3
2 2
4
2
aL kaL teL gwKDYDJ ffoL wDJ
3
3
3
2 2
4
2
aL kaL teL gwKDYDJ kKaB wKD
3
3
3
2 2
3
4
aL kaL teL gwKDYDJ tyoN wDJ
3
3
3
2 2
42
2
(yesterday)
"he didn’t pound the leaf"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t pound the plate"
(yesterday)
"he didn’t pound the tree"
(yesterday)
Sgdtmtrt`km`stqdnesgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrb`madrtll`qhydc
tmcdqsgdenkknvhmfl`hmonhmsr9
228
(409) A) presence of an echo vowel suffix on the verb in a
perfective construction.
B) a H tone on that suffix.
C) the negative clitic /wDJ/ is downstepped after
nouns with underlying L+HL tones.
D) nouns with underlying L+H tones are realized on
LH rising tones which they only have when the L
tone of the prefix is associated to some syllable.
Vdoqnonrdsg`s`kknesgdrdbg`q`bsdqhrshbr`qdsgdqdrtksnesgdk`sd
nqcdqhmfne`unvdk`rrhlhk`shnmqtkd'rdd'475(adknv(vghbgs`jdr`mxunvdk
sg`sadfhmr`vnqc+`ss`bgdrhssnsgddmcnesgdoqdbdchmfvnqc+`rrhlhk`sdrhssn
sgdunvdkpt`khsxnesgdoqdbdchmfunvdk+andqd`rrnbh`sdrhssnsgdoqdbdchmf
snmd-Vdvhkkdw`lhmdhmcds`hksgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdk`rsdw`lokdrgnvm`anud
hmnqcdqsnrddvgxrtbg`qtkdnqcdqdc`esdqsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrb`mg`ud
rtbg`mtmtrt`kdeedbs-Ntqtmcdqkxhmfrsqtbstqdvntkc`ood`q`radknv`esdq
sgdkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdc'vdvhkkk`adksgdnaidbsmntm
bk`rroqdehwknvdqb`rd!`!hmsghrcdqhu`shnmrhmbdhsqdoqdrdmsr`unvdkvghbg
vhkktmcdqfn`rdfldms`k`rrhlhk`shnm(9
(410)
#
N
#
#
L
#
H
+
V
¶
a
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
229
Rhmbdsgdcdrxkk`ahehb`shnmqtkdcndrmns`ookxsnsgdrdnaidbsoqdehwdr+sgd
ehqrsqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqqhfgsv`qc,cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkdvghbg
`rrnbh`sdrsgdekn`shmfGqd`khronk`qsnmdsnsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akdnmhsrqhfgs
vghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdKsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`radknv9
(411)
#
N
#
#
L
#
H
+
V
¶
a
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
Sghrhmstqmeddcrntqlds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbgeqnmsrsgdmnvrsq`mcdcKsnmd
vghbgb`ldeqnlsgdudqaqnns+`radknv9
(412)
#
N
#
#
L
#
H
+
V
¶
a
+
B
#
W
//
+
L
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
Sgdmdwssnmdqtkdsnnodq`sdhrntqqhrd,enql`shnmqtkdvghbgenqlr`KG
qhrhmfsnmdnmrxkk`akdAax`rrnbh`shmfsg`srxkk`akdsnsgdoqdbdchmfKsnmd
mntmbk`rroqdehw+`radknv9
(413)
#
N
#
#
L
#
+
L H
+
V
¶
a
+
B
#
W
//
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
Mnv+`esdq`kksgdqdftk`qsnmdqtkdrg`udnodq`sdc+vdbnldsnsgdbqtbh`k
lnldmshmsgdcdqhu`shnm-Sgntfgntqc`s`nmunvdk`rrhlhk`shnmhrmns
230
nudqvgdklhmf+mnsghmfsgdqdrgnvrntqenkknvhmfqtkdsnade`krd-Vdsgdqdenqd
sdms`shudkxoqnonrdsg`s`rhmfkdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkd'rdd'465(adknv(
nodq`sdnm`kkvnqc,hmhsh`kunvdkrvghbg`qdmns`krnrdmsdmbd,hmhsh`k`mc`ss`bg
sgdlsnsgdoqdbdchmfvnqc'`r`rteehw(-Sgdqtkdvntkc`krn`rrhlhk`sdsgd
unvdksnsgdunvdkpt`khsxentmchmsgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akd-@mc+bqtbh`kkx+sghr
k`sdqtkdvntkc`krnchr`rrnbh`sdsgdunvdkeqnlhsroqduhntrkx`rrnbh`sdcsnmdr
`mcqd`rrnbh`sdhssnsgdk`rssnmdnesgdoqdbdchmfvnqc-@kksghrhrrgnvmhmsgd
enkknvhmfqdoqdrdms`shnm9
(414)
#
N
#
#
L
#
L H
+
V D ¶
a
+
B
#
W
//
+
¶
L
+
H
#
H
//
Sgdnmkxqdl`hmhmfqtkdsn`eedbssghrrsqtbstqdhrntqcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbg
knvdqrsgdsnmdqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbghlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdudqaqnns+
qdrtkshmfhmsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmentmcadknv9
(415)
#
N
#
#
L
#
-
3
-
+
L H
+
2-2
V
+
+
D
¶
¶
L
-
4
+
B
#
W
//
+
H
#
H
//
2
-
2
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqdw`lhm`shnmnesnmdbg`mfdrctdsnsgdoqdrdmbd
nq`ardmbdne`mnaidbsl`qjdqadsvddmudqa`mcnaidbs-
231
1-4-Nudq`kkQtkdNqcdqhmf
Sgdu`qhntrsnmdqtkdrmddcdchmMfxdla——mg`udaddmcdudknodc
nudqsgdbntqrdnesgdoqdbdchmfsgqddrdbshnmr91-1-nmqtkdrmddcdchm
nqcdqsng`mckdmntmogq`rdr+1-2-nm`cchshnm`kqtkdrmddcdcsng`mckd
udqaogq`rdr+`mcehm`kkx1-3-nmsvnqdrsqhbshnmrnmntqsnm`klnqogdld
cnbjhmfqtkdrvgdmrtaidbsr+udqar`mcnaidbsrbnldhmbnms`bs-Sgd
oqdrdmsrdbshnmvhkkbnkkdbs`kksgdrdqtkdrhmsnnmdok`bdrnsgdqd`cdqb`m
fds`mnudq`kkhcd`nesgddmshqdsnm`krxrsdl-Sgdqd`cdqhrqdedqqdcsn
@oodmchw@enq`qdrs`sdldmsnesgdehm`ksnmdqtkdrvhsgitrssgdhq
enql`khydcrs`sdldmsr-Sghrrdbshnmvhkkchrbtrrhmoqnrdsgdu`qhntrsnmd
qtkdrvghbgg`udaddmcdudknodc-
Sgdehqrsrsdosnrddhmfsgdvgnkdrxrsdlhrsnrdd`khrsne`kksgdsnmd
qtkdr`knmfvhsg`chrbtrrhnmnesgdhqnqcdqhmf-Sgdsnmdqtkdrhm
Mfxdla——mg`udaddmchuhcdchmsnsgqddrdo`q`sdfqntor-Bqtbh`kkx+`kkne
sgdsnmdqtkdr`qdtmnqcdqdcvhsghmsgdhqqdrodbshudfqnto+d`bgfqnto
nodq`shmfnm`kdes,sn,qhfgsoqhmbhokd-Sgdd`qkxfqntobnms`hmritrsntq
kdes,sn,qhfgssnmdl`oohmfqtkd+vghbgu`qhntrvqhsdqrg`udonrhsdcsnad`
tmhudqr`k-Sgdrdbnmc`mcl`inqfqntobnms`hmrntq!qdftk`q!snmdqtkdr
vghbgnodq`sdvgdmdudqsgdhqbnmchshnmr`qdldslnuhmfsgqntfgsgd
rsqtbstqdon the tonal tiereqnlkdessnqhfgs-Sgdk`sdfqnto
bnms`hmritrsntqk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdvghbghrqdronmrhakdnmkxenqxhdkchmf
232
sgdbnqqdbsognmdshbqd`khy`shnmeqnlsgdqdrsnesgdcdqhu`shnm-Vdmnv
fhud`mtoc`sdcbg`qs'eqnl'60(`anud(+vghbgkhrsrsgdu`qhntrqtkdrhm
d`bgnesgdhqfqntor+rdo`q`sdceqnld`bgnsgdqaxu`qhntrlnqogn,
snmnknfhb`k!fq`ll`shb`k!qtkdr+`radknv9
(416)
Rule Ordering
(Morpheme Spelling Rules)
Left-to-Right Mapping Rule (universal)
(Early Morpho-tonological Rules)
Rule
Rule
Rule
Rule
Rule
Rule
Rule
1 :
3’:
4 :
5’:
6’:
7’:
8’:
Final Downglide
Metathesis
Rise-Formation
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
Rise-Deletion
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
Well-formedness Rule (WFR)
(Late Morpho-tonological Rules)
Rule 2’:
Downstep (late adjustment rule)
233
Hsrgntkcadrsqdrrdcsg`s`o`qseqnlsgde`bssg`ssgdl`oohmfqtkdhr
udqxd`qkx`mcsgdcnvmrsdoqtkdudqxk`sd+sgdqdrsnesgdsnmdqtkdr`qd
bnlokdsdkxtmnqcdqdcvhsgqdrodbssnd`bgnsgdq-Sgdx`qdnqcdqdchmd`bg
cdqhu`shnmrhlokxaxsgdknb`koqhmbhokdneoqnbddchmfeqnlkdessnqhfgsnm
sgdsnm`kshdq`mc`kknvhmfd`bgqtkdsn`ookxvgdmdudqhsrbnmchshnmr`qd
lds-
Vdvhkkmnvqdrs`sdd`bgnesgdenql`khydcudqrhnmrnesgdsnmdqtkdr
hmsgdnqcdqsg`ssgdxvdqdchrbtrrdchmsgdsdws'`mcvhsg`qdedqdmbd
a`bjsnhsrnqhfhm`kok`bdhmsgdsdws(-Vdvhkkenkknvd`bgqtkdvhsg`
aqhdertll`qxnevg`ssgdqtkd`bbnlokhrgdr-Rs`qshmfvhsgsgdqtkdrvd
cdudknodcenqsgdmntmogq`rd+ntqehqrsqtkdv`r9
(417) Rule 1:
(see (16) above)
Final Downglide
#
L Ø Ø
/
//
H L
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkd`ccransg`G`mcKsnmd`esdq`mxrhmfkd
`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdvghbghlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdro`trd+`mc`rrnbh`sdrsgd
k`rsKsnmda`bjsnsgdr`ldrxkk`akd-Vdmdwsneedqdc`oqdkhlhm`qx
udqrhnmnentqcnvmrsdoqtkd+`radknv9
234
(418) Rule 2:
Downstep
(see (18) above)
#
+1 pitch
-[T
[T
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdhr`k`sd`citrsldmsqtkdvghbgknvdqrsgdsnmd
qdfhrsdqnmdmnsbg'`mhmbqd`rdmtldqhb`kkxld`mr`knvdqohsbgkdudk(
vgdmdudq`m`rrnbh`sdcsnmdhrhlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdcax`ekn`shmfsnmdne
noonrhsdbg`q`bsdq-Hsrgntkcadmnsdcsg`ssghrqtkdhransgbtltk`shud`mc
odqrdudq`shud-Nmbd`cnvmrsdoqtkdhrsqhffdqdc+hsknvdqrallenkknvhmf
snmdrnmdohsbgkdudktmshkhsqd`bgdrsgdmdwso`trd-Vgdmlnqdsg`mnmd
cnvmrsdonbbtqradsvddmsvno`trdr+sgdxjddoknvdqhmfsgdohsbg
qdfhrsdq`cchshnm`kmnsbgdr-Sgdnqdshb`kkxrod`jhmf+sgdqdhrmnkhlhssnsgd
mtladqnecnvmrsdorvghbglhfgss`jdok`bdadsvddmsvno`trdr-
Oq`bshb`kkxrod`jhmf+vgdmsgdohsbgqdfhrsdqfdsrsnnknv+`esdqrdudmsn
sdmknvdqhmfr+sgdMfxdla——mrod`jdqvhkko`trd'`mcqdrdsghrohsbg
kdudk(`ssgdmdwsl`inqfq`ll`shb`kantmc`qx-@qtkdvghbg`kv`xreddcr
sghrcnvmrsdoqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
235
(419) Rule 3:
(see (24) above)
Metathesis
#
#
L
H
L
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdv`r`oqdkhlhm`qxenqltk`shnmnentqlds`sgdrhr
qtkd-Sghrqtkdqdudqrdcsgdnqcdqne`m`rrnbh`sdcGsnmd`mc`enkknvhmf
Ksnmdvgdmdudqsgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdv`r`rrnbh`sdcsn`Ksnmd-Sghr
qtkdv`rbqtbh`khmeddchmfntqcnvmrsdoqtkd`ssgdqhfgsok`bdhmntq
snm`ko`ssdqmr-Ntqmdwsqtkdv`r9
(420) Rule 4:
Rise-Formation
#
#
#
L
H
(see (29) above)
#
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdbqd`sdr`KGqhrhmfsnmdax`rrnbh`shmf`mx`kqd`cx
`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdsnsgdmdwsrxkk`akdhesg`srxkk`akdhr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdc
sn`rhmfkdGsnmdoqnuhchmfsg`sansgsnmdr`qd`ci`bdms`mcbnms`hmdchm
sgdr`ldvnqc-Ntqmdwsqtkdv`r9
236
(421) Rule 5:
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
(see (38)
above)
#
+
T
+
+
L
+
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdv`r`md`qkxudqrhnmnentqqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdc
'cnbjdc(`mx'ekn`shmf(Ksnmdhm`lnqogdldvhsgntsrxkk`ahbbnmsdmssn
sgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdvghkdchr`rrnbh`shmfsg`srxkk`akdeqnl
sgdsnmdhsv`r`rrnbh`sdcsn+hesg`ssnmdv`r`ci`bdmssnsgdmdvkx
`rrnbh`sdcKsnmd-Ntqmdwsqtkdv`r9
(422) Rule 6:
Rise-Deletion
#
#
+
L
H
+
(see (51) above)
+
L
+
Ø
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdv`r`md`qkxudqrhnmnentqqtkdvghbgcdkdsdcsgd
Gsnmdne`mxrxkk`akdvghbgg`c`KGsnmdqhrd`rrnbh`sdcvhsghs
oqnuhcdcsg`ssgdKsnmdnesg`sqhrdv`r`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsnsgd
237
oqdbdchmfrxkk`akd`mcsg`ssgdrxkk`akdvhsgsgdqhrdv`rhlldch`sdkx
enkknvdcax`lnqogdldbnms`hmhmfmnsghmfats`rhmfkdKsnmd-Ntqmdws
qtkdv`r9
(423) Rule 7:
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
(see (56)
above)
+
+
H
+
#
+
T
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdv`r`md`qkxudqrhnmnentqqtkdvghbg`rrnbh`sdc
'cnbjdc(`mx'ekn`shmf(Gsnmdvghbgl`cdto`mdmshqdlnqogdldsnsgd
hlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfrxkk`akd`mccdkdsdcsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdeqnlsg`s
rxkk`akdsn`mxsnmdvghbghlldch`sdkxenkknvdcsgdmdvkx`rrnbh`sdcG
snmd-Ntqmdwsqtkdv`r9
(424) Rule 3’:
Metathesis
#
#
L (H)
H
(see (62) above)
L
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdv`rntqqduhrdclds`sgdrhrqtkdvghbg`ccdcsgd
onrrhahkhsxne`ekn`shmfGsnmdadenqdsgdrxkk`akdtmcdqfnhmfsgdbg`mfd-
Sgdqtkdmnvbg`mfdcsgdnqcdqne`m`rrnbh`sdcGsnmd`mc`enkknvhmf
ekn`shmfKsnmdoqnuhcdcsg`ssgdoqduhntrrxkk`akdhr`rrnbh`sdcsn`K
238
snmd`mc`kknvhmfenqsgdoqdrdmbdne`rhmfkdekn`shmfGsnmdadsvddmsgd
svn`ci`bdmsrxkk`akdr-Sgdqduhrhnmnesghrqtkdv`rsgdk`rsrsdohmntq
cdudknoldmsnesnmdqtkdrmddcdcsng`mckdsgdsnmdbg`mfdrenq
chrxkk`ahbmntmrhmmntmogq`rdr-
Nmdnesgdl`hm`hlrnesghrchrrdqs`shnmv`rsnrddhesgdsnmdqtkdr
mddcdchmMfxdla——mmntmogq`rdrvdqdrteehbhdmshm`mcnesgdlrdkudr
sng`mckd`kknesgdsnmdbg`mfdrentmchmudqaogq`rdr-Vghkdvdentmc
sg`ssgdmntmogq`rdsnmdqtkdrg`mckdcsgdu`rsl`inqhsxneudqa`ksnmd
odqstqa`shnmr+vdchcmddcsncdudknonmdmdvsnmdqtkd-Sghrsnmdqtkd+
sgdVEQ+v`rnmdo`qsnesgdVEBvghbgmddcdcsnadqdrs`sdc`mcfhudm
sgdrs`strne`mtmnqcdqdcsnmdqtkd-Rs`sdcehqrshmhsroqdkhlhm`qxenql9
(425) Rule 8: Well-formedness Rule (WFR) (see (94) above)
#
T
Sghrqtkdr`xrsg`svgdmdudq`snmdkdrrrxkk`akdhrentmc'hmsgdkdes,
sn,qhfgs`ookhb`shnmnesgdsnmdqtkdr(+hshr`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdehqrssnmd
entmcsnhsrkdes-Mdws+hsv`rentmcsg`svdmddcdcsnqduhrdsgdqhrd,
239
cdkdshnmqtkd+vghbgv`rqdrs`sdc`radknv9
(426) Rule 6’:
Rise-Deletion
#
(see (170) above)
#
L (T) H
/
L
Ø
Sgdoqdbdchmfqduhrdcqtkd`kknvrenqsgdoqdrdmbdne`ekn`shmfsnmd
adsvddmntqsvnrxkk`akdrvgdqdqhrd,cdkdshnms`jdrok`bd`mc`kknvrsg`s
sgdqhrdltrsnmkxadenkknvdcax`enkknvhmfKsnmdhmrsd`cne`Ksnmd
snm`klnqogdld-SgdqtkdmnvcdkdsdrsgdGsnmdne`mxrxkk`akdvhsg`
KGqhrhmfsnmdvgdmdudqsgdKsnmdhr`rrnbh`sdcsn`oqdbdchmfrxkk`akd
`mcsgdqhrhmfsnmdhrhlldch`sdkxenkknvdcax`Ksnmddudmhe`ekn`shmf
snmdnbbtqradsvddmsgdK`mcGsnmdnesgdqhrd-Mdws+vdchrbnudqdc
qd`rnmsnetqsgdqbnmlokhb`sdntqVEQ+`mcvdqdrs`sdchshmhsrehm`k
enql`radknv9
240
'316(Rule 8’: Well-formedness Rule (WFR)'rdd'073(`anud(
'#(*#*
(T)
T
+
+
Condition: When a toneless syllable associates to the
first tone on its left, it only disassociates
that tone from another syllable if that syllable
is already associated to yet another tone.
Sghrqtkd`rrnbh`sdr`mxsnmdkdrrrxkk`akdsnsgdehqrssnmdentmcnmhsr
kdesvghkdchr`rrnbh`shmf`rvdkksg`sr`ldsnmdeqnl`mxnsgdqrxkk`akdr
vhsgvghbghslhfgs`kqd`cxad`rrnbh`sdcrnknmf`rsgnrdrxkk`akdrvntkc
qds`hmxds`mnsgdqsnmd-Ntqmdwsrsdov`rsnqduhrdntqcnvmrsdoqtkdhm
nqcdqsn`kknvenqcntakdcnvmrsdoohmfnesgdsnm`kqdfhrsdq+`radknv9
(428) Rule 2’:
Downstep (see (261) above)
#
+ਫ pitch
(-[T)ਫ
[T
241
This rule says that the tone register is lowered the
same number of steps (add one pitch level for each step
lowered) as the number (ਫ) of floating polar (-[) tones (T)
which precede a given associated tone ([T).
Sghrv`rsgdk`rsnesgdsnmdqtkdr`mcqduhrhnmrnesnmdqtkdrvghbg
v`rmddcdcsng`mckd`kknentqc`s`nmudqaogq`rdr'oqdrdmsdchmsgd
enkknvhmfbg`osdq(-Adenqdkd`uhmf`rhcdsgdptdrshnmne`cchshnm`ksnmd
qtkdr`mcsgdhqdw`bsenql+sgdhmsdq`bshnmnemntmogq`rdrvhsgudqa
ogq`rdr`mcudqarvhsgnaidbsrv`rdw`lhmdcvhsgrodbh`k`ssdmshnmsn
snm`kogdmnldm`-Hsv`rentmcsg`smnmdvsnmdqtkdrvdqdmddcdc+ats
sg`sd`bgnentqqtkdrvghbgcnbjrsnm`klnqogdldrg`csng`ud`ccdc
qdrsqhbshnmrvghbghmd`bgb`rdqdedqqdcsnsgdoqdrdmbdne`mhmsdqudmhmf
ogq`rdantmc`qx-Sgdehqrsnesgdrdqtkdrsnadqduhrdcv`rntqqhfgsv`qc,
cnbjhmfGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldqtkd+vghbgv`rehm`kkxenql`khydc`r
adknv9
242
(429) Rule 7’:
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes (see
(323) above)
+
+
H
+
#
+
T
Condition: association line deleted only if boundary
between H and T tones is weaker than a
phrase boundary (¶).
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkd`rrnbh`sdrsgdGsnmdne`lnqogdldbnmrhrshmfne
mnsghmfdkrdsnsgdehqrsrxkk`akdnmhsrqhfgs+atsvhkkmnschr`rrnbh`sdsg`s
rxkk`akdeqnlsgdsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqdhesgdmdvkx`rrnbh`sdcG
snmdg`csnbqnrr`ogq`rdantmc`qxsnehmcsgdrxkk`akd-Ntqehm`kqduhrhnm
ne`snmdqtkdenqsgdo`q`kkdkkdesv`qc,cnbjhmfKsnmdsnm`klnqogdld
qtkdv`renql`khydc`radknv9
243
(430) Rule 5’:
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes (see
(384) above)
#
+
T
+
+
L
+
Condition: This rule shall not operate if it would
associate the floating L tone across a phrase
boundary to a syllable already associated
with an immediately preceding H tone.
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdbnmshmtdrsn`rrnbh`sd`Ksnmdvghbgl`jdrto`m
dmshqdlnqogdldsnsgdehqrsrxkk`akdnmhsrkdesvghkdchrr`rrnbh`shmfsgd
snmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+dwbdoshesgdmdvkx`rrnbh`sdcsnmdltrs
bqnrr`ogq`rdantmc`qxsnehmc`rxkk`akd`mcsgdhlldch`sdkxoqduhntr
snmd`rrnbh`sdcsnsg`srxkk`akdhr`Gsnmd-
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqrtll`qxnesgdcdudknoldmsnentqsnmdqtkdr`mc
sgdo`qsnesgdfq`ll`q'mntmogq`rd+udqaogq`rd+rtaidbsnqnaidbs
l`qjdq(vghbgmdbdrrhs`sdcsgdhqenqltk`shnmnqqduhrhnm-Hsrgntkcad
ldmshnmdcsg`smns`kknesgd`cchshnm`kudqac`s`bntkcg`udaddmg`mckdc
vhsgntsonrhshmfrdudq`klnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbgs`jd
fq`ll`shb`khmenql`shnmhmsn`bbntmsvgdmcdbhchmfvgdsgdqsn`ookx-
Sgdrdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr`qdenql`khydchmbg`osdq3adknv-Sgd
dhfgsotqdkxsnm`kqtkdritrsdk`anq`sdccnmnsmddc`mxfq`ll`shb`k
244
hmenql`shnmhmsgdhqenqltk`shnm-Sgdxnodq`sdvgdmdudqsgdhqbnmchshnmr
`qdldsnmsgdsnm`k`mcrxkk`ahbshdqr`knmd-
245
CHAPTER 3
2-/ UdqaO`q`chflr
Sgdoqdrdmsbg`osdqoqdrdmsrsgdu`qhntro`q`chflrnesdmrd+`rodbs+
lncd`mconk`qhsxhmsgdMfxdla——mhmchb`shudl`hmbk`trd-Hshrsghrc`s`
vghbgg`raddmsgdbdmsdqnentqhmudrshf`shnmhmsnsnm`kogdmnldm`hm
sgdudqaogq`rd-
Sgdu`qhntrudqao`q`chflroqdrdmsdchmsghrbg`osdqvhkkad
nqf`mhydc`bbnqchmfsnntqbg`qs'ehqrsoqdrdmsdchm'71(`anud(vghbg
rgnvrvgdsgdqd`bgbnmrsqtbshnm&rsnmdrnmsgdudqarsdl`qdsgnrdnesgd
qdftk`qqd`khr'Q(+nqqdftk`qhqqd`khr'H(nqrnldtmtrt`khchnrxmbq`shb'w(
qd`khy`shnm+`radknv9
246
(431)
Revised Realis/Irrealis Tone Distribution
Features
P4
P3
P2
P1
Ø
+perf
x/R
F1
F2
F3
F4
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/x
x/x
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
x/R
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
x/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
+real
-perf
+real
-prog
-perf
+real
+prog
+perf
-real
-perf
-real
-prog
-perf
-real
+prog
247
Vdvhkkoqdrdmssgdhmchuhct`ko`q`chflrenqd`bgnesgdmhmdsdmrdr
hmsgdbg`qseqnlkdessnqhfgs+`mcdw`lhmhmfd`bgnesgdbnmrsqtbshnmr
onrrhakdhmd`bgsdmrdeqnlsnosnanssnlhmd`bgbnktlm-@rhm`
oqduhntrqdedqdmbdsnsghrr`ldbg`qs+!Q!qdedqrsnqdftk`qqd`khrsnmd
o`ssdqmr+!H!snqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmr+`mc!w!snhchnrxmbq`shbsnmd
o`ssdqmrnmsgdudqa-Sgdkdssdqsnsgdkdesned`bgrk`rghmchb`sdrsgdsnmd
o`ssdqmnesgdonrhshudbnmrsqtbshnmvghkdsgdkdssdqsnsgdqhfgsned`bg
rk`rghmchb`sdrhsrmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qs-
Ctdsnsgddwsqdldkxeqdptdmsnbbtqqdmbdnesvnsnmdo`ssdqmr+`mc
ctdsnsgdbnmsq`rsadsvddmsgdrdsvno`ssdqmrbnqqdk`shmfvhsg`rdl`mshb
bnmsq`rsadsvddmqd`khr`mchqqd`khrlncd+sgdrdsvno`ssdqmrg`udaddm
cdsdqlhmdcsnadlnqda`rhbsg`mu`qhntrhchnrxmbq`shbo`ssdqmr`mcsgdx
g`udsgdqdenqdaddmk`adkdc!qdftk`q-!Sgdenkknvhmfbg`qsfhudrsgd
surfaceqd`khy`shnmrnesgdqdftk`qqd`khr`mchqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgd
udqarsdl9
(432)
Surface Tones
Lexical tones
Realis
Irrealis
H tone verb root
H
dHd
L tone verb root
dH
dLd
Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsrgnvrsg`sqdftk`qsnm`ko`ssdqmrenqudqarsdlr
hmqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr`qdGsnmdeqnl`mtmcdqkxhmfGsnmdudqaqnns`mc
248
cnvmrsdoodcGsnmdeqnl`mtmcdqkxhmfKsnmdudqaqnns-Hmqdftk`q
hqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrgnvdudq+sgdtmcdqkxhmfsnmdnmsgdudqaqnnshr
lnchehdcaxsgd`cchshnmnesvncnvmrsdoed`stqdr'∫(+nmdoqdbdchmf`mc
nmdenkknvhmfsgdudqarsdl-Sgdu`qhntrcdqhu`shnmrsg`soqnctbdsgdrd
rtqe`bdrsqtbstqdr`qdcdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnmr1-2-0-`mc1-2-1-
`anud-Bnmrsqtbshnmrvghbgbnms`hmhchnrxmbq`shbsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgd
udqar`qdchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-Ctqhmfsgdqdrsne
sghrbg`osdq+sgdu`qhntrudqao`q`chflrvhkkadoqdrdmsdcvhsgnmkx`
vnqc`rsnsgdhqqdftk`qnqhchnrxmbq`shbsnm`kadg`uhnq-Sgdqd`cdq
hmsdqdrsdchmsgdhm,cdosgcdqhu`shnmned`bgo`ssdqmhrqdedqqdcsnsgd
`ooqnoqh`sdrdbshnmr`anud-
HmMfxdla——m+sgda`rhbhmchb`shnmnesgdu`qhntrsdmrdrhrcnmdax
ld`mrnecheedqdms!l`qjdqr-!Sgdydqnsdmrdhrhmchb`sdcaxsgd`ardmbd
ne`mxnudqssdmrdlnqogdld-Lnrsnesgdetstqdsdmrdr`qdl`qjdcaxsgd
oqdrdmbdneu`qhntr`twhkh`qxudqar'rddrdbshnm2-6-adknv(+svnnesgd
etstqdsdmrdr`bst`kkxg`uhmf`bgnhbdadsvddmsvncheedqdms`twhkh`qx
udqarsnhmchb`sdsgdr`ldrdl`mshbed`stqdr-Sgqddnesgdo`rssdmrdr
l`jdtrdnenqchm`qxsdmrdl`qjdqrvghkdsgdtmtrt`kO3sdmrdhr
hmchb`sdcaxbnlahmhmfl`qjdqrenqO2`mcE3-Sgdmhmdsdmrdrnentq
oqduhntrbg`qs`qdl`qjdcaxsgdenkknvhmflnqogdldr9
249
(433)
Tense Markers
P4 :
/laL/ + /laJY/
P3 :
/laL/
P2 :
/kaL/
P1 :
/neNd/
Zero :
/Ø/
F1 :
/geL/
F2 :
/toJ/ or /gyoL/
F3 :
/luL/
F4 :
/laJY/ or /foJ/
Sgdentqudqarsdlrvghbgvhkkenqlsgda`rhrenqd`bgudqao`q`chfl`qd
sgdenkknvhmf9
(434)
Verb Stems
Monosyllabic
Disyllabic
H tone verb root
zaY "cut"
lumte "bite"
L tone verb root
gwDY "grind"
limte "reheat"
Sgdnsgdqvnqcrentmchmsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chflrhmbktcdsgd
enkknvhmfrtaidbs+naidbs`mcfq`ll`shb`kl`qjdqr9
250
'324(NsgdqVnqcr
.`∆.!gd!'rtaidbs(
.l–a`∆a.!ld`s!'naidbs(
.md∆.!oqnfqdrrhud`rodbs!
.rrdæ∫.!qd`khroqnfqdrrhud!
.j`∆---v—æ.!oqdrdmsodqedbshudmdf`shud!
.sd∆---v—æ.!nsgdqmdf`shud!
Enqbnmrsqtbshnmrl`qjdcenqqd`khrlncd+oqnfqdrrhud`rodbsl`xad
l`qjdcaxeither.md∆.`knmd+.rrdæ∫.`knmd+nqansgnesgdlsnfdsgdq-
Sgdrdsgqddbnmrsqtbshnmrvhkkadoqdrdmsdchmsgdnqcdqrgnvm`anud+
sgntfgsgdcheedqdmbdradsvddmbnmrsqtbshnmrl`jdrmncheedqdmbdhmsgdhq
ld`mhmf-
Sgdl`hml`qjdqnemdf`shnmhmsgdhmchb`shudlnnchrsgdaho`qshsd
lnqogdld.sd∆---v—æ.vhsgsgd.sd∆.onrhshnmdc`esdqsgdo`rssdmrdl`qjdqr
`mcadenqdsgdOQNFl`qjdqvghkdsgd.v—æ.hr`bkhshbsg`snbbtqr`ssgd
dmcnesgdbk`trd-SgdO/'hlldch`sdo`rsodqedbshud(hrsgdnmkxdwbdoshnm
snsgdfdmdq`kmdf`shudl`qjhmfvgdmhss`jdrhsrnvmaho`qshsdMDF
l`qjdq.j`∆---v—æ.-
Sgdu`qhntrhmchb`shududqao`q`chflr`qdmnvoqdrdmsdcadfhmmhmf
vhsgsgdqdlnsdo`rs`mcoqnfqdrrhmfsnsgdqdlnsdetstqd-
251
2-0-QdlnsdO`rsO39.k`∆.*.k`æù.
Sgdqdlnsdo`rssdmrdhrenqldcaxbnlahmhmfsgdo`rssdmrdl`qjdq
.k`∆.neO2vhsg`m`twhkh`qxudqa.k`æù.vghbghr`krnnmdnesgd`ksdqm`shud
enqlrtrdcsnhmchb`sdsgdE3sdmrd'sgdnsgdq`ksdqm`shud+.enæ.b`mmnsad
trdcvhsg.k`∆.snhmchb`sdO3shld(-Sgdenkknvhmfonrhshudodqedbshud
bnmrstbshnmr`qdhmsdqdrshmfhmsg`s'sgntfg`kkO3rdmsdmbdr`qd
tmcdqkxhmfkxqd`khr(sgdxg`udsgdqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgd
l`hmudqar-SgdO3odqedbshudr+ansgonrhshud`mcmdf`shud+`qd`krn
tmtrt`khmsg`ssgdxg`ud`m`r`koqdehwnmsgdl`hmudqaqnns-Sghrm`r`k
oqdehw`ood`qrsnadsgdoqdehwvghbgl`qjrbnmrdbtshududqarhmqd`khr
bnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdqd`rnmnmdehmcrhsvhsgO3Õradb`trd
sgdE3.k`æù.bnmshmtdrsnetmbshnm`r`m`twhkh`qxudqa-Vg`shrtmtrt`khr
sg`s+sgntfgsgd.k`æù.nbbtqrvhsgqd`khrsnmdr`mchrenkknvdcaxsgdqd`khr
bnmrdbtshudm`r`koqdehw+sgdl`hmudqaqnnsrhmonrhshudbnmrsqtbshnmr
g`udirqd`khrsnmdr-Sgdcdqhu`shnmnesgdenkknvhmfonrhshudrdmsdmbdrhr
chrbtrrdchmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-Vdmnvrgnvsgdonrhshudodqedbshud
o`q`chfl9
252
(436) P4 positive perfective:
aL laL laJY nzKaY mbMab
"he cut the meat"(a long time ago)
aL laL laJY ngwMDY mbMab
"he pounded the meat"
aL laL laJY ndKumteJ mbMab "he bit the meat"
aL laL laJY ndMim
b teL mbMab "he reheated the meat"
Sgntfgsgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsr`krng`udsgdbnmrdbtshudm`r`koqdehwnm
sgdl`hmudqa+sgdxg`udqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrhmrsd`cnesgdtmtrt`k
o`ssdqmrrddm`anud-Qdldladqhmfsg`ssgdMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.bnlldr`esdqo`rs
sdmrdl`qjdqrkhjd.k`∆.atsadenqd`twhkh`qxudqarkhjd.k`æù.+sgdmdf`shud
o`q`chflhr`radknv9
(437) P4 negative perfective:
aL laL teL laJY nzaJY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t cut the meat"
aL laL teL laJY ngwKDY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t pound the meat"
aL laL teL laJY nduJmteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t bite the meat"
aL laL teL laJY ndKimteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t reheat the meat"
Sgdu`qhntrhlodqedbshud`ksdqm`shudr`qdenqldcax`cchmf`Ksnmd
unvdkrteehwsnsgdudqaqnns-Sghrhlodqedbshudunvdks`jdrnmsgdunvdk
pt`khsxnesgdqnnsunvdkvhsglnmnrxkk`ahbudqarsdlr`mccqnornts
bnlokdsdkxvhsgchrxkk`ahbudqarsdlr-Sgtrenqchrxkk`ahbudqar+hshrnmkx
sgdsnmdnmsgdrdbnmcrxkk`akd'trt`kkx`.,sd.rteehw`rhmntqdw`lokdr(
253
vghbghmchb`sdrsgdoqdrdmbdnesgdhlodqedbshud`rodbs-Sgdmnm,
oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud`rodbshrtrdcvhsgo`rssdmrdrsnhmchb`sdsg`s
sgd`bsnqtrdcsnadhmunkudchm`bdqs`hmg`ahst`k`bshnmvghbg'hlokhdc(
gdmnknmfdqcndr-
Sgdonrhshudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudo`q`chflkhrsdcadknvtmcdqfndrsgd
r`ldhchnrxmbq`shbsnmdbg`mfdr`rsgdonrhshudodqedbshudo`q`chfl
etqsgdq`anud9
(438) P4 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL laL laJY nzKaYMa mbaLb
"he was a meat-cutter"(a long time ago)
aL laL laJY ngwMDYMD mbaLb "he was a meat-pounder"
aL laL laJY ndKumtMe mbaLb "he was a meat-biter"
aL laL laJY ndMimtMe mbaLb "he was a meat-reheater"
Sgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsrnesgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrnmbd`f`hm
qdstqmsnsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgdudqar+`rvdr`vvhsgsgd
odqedbshudmdf`shudr`anud-Sgdmdf`shudo`q`chfl9
(439) P4 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL laL teL laJY nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t a meat-cutter"
aL laL teL laJY ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t a meat-pounder"
aL laL teL laJY nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t a meat-biter"
aL laL teL laJY ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t a meat-reheater"
254
SgdO3oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudr`qdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`q+ansg
rdfldms`kkx`mcsnm`kkx-Sgdxcnmnss`jdhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgdhq
udqaqnnsr`rhmsgdo`q`kkdkonrhshudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudbntmsdqo`qsrnesgd
oqdbdchmfrdbshnm-Hmrsd`c+sgdxg`udsgdhqdwodbsdcqd`khrsnmdr-Sgdnmkx
tmtrt`ke`bsnqhrsg`ssgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.rrdæ∫.hrmnsonrrhakd
vhsgsgdO3sdmrd`rvhsgnsgdqo`rssdmrdr-Sghrhrlnrskhjdkxctdsnsgd
oqdrdmbdnesgdirqd`khrE3l`qjdq.k`æù.hmsgdlhcckdne`qd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnm-Hmrsd`cnesgqddo`q`kkdkfq`ll`shb`kbnmrsqtbshnmr+vd
sgdqdenqdehmcnmkxsgdbnmrsqtbshnmvhsgsgdfdmdq`koqnfqdrrhud.md∆.+`r
adknv9
(440) P4 positive progressive imperfective:
aL laL laJY neL nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"
(a long time ago)
aL laL laJY neL ngwKDYDL mbaLb
"he was pounding meat"
aL laL laJY neL nduJmteL mbaLb
"he was biting meat"
aL laL laJY neL ndKimteL mbaLb
"he was reheating meat"
Sgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsr`qd`krnqd`khydcnmsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr+
`rhmsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chfl9
255
'330(O3mdf`shudoqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆k`∆sd∆k`æùmd∆my`æù`∆la`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&sbtsshmfld`s!
`∆k`∆sd∆k`æùmd∆ngw@ABA∆la`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&sontmchmfld`s!
`∆k`∆sd∆k`æùmd∆mctælsd∆la`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&sahshmfld`s!
`∆k`∆sd∆k`æùmd∆nd@imte∆ la`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&sqdgd`shmfld`s!
SghrbnmbktcdrntqrdbshnmnmsgdonrrhakdO3bnmrsqtbshnmr+entqne
rhwnevghbgg`udaddmqd`khydcnmqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr-
256
2-1-Chrs`msO`rsO29.k`∆.
Khjdl`mxA`mstk`mft`fdr+Mfxdla——mtrdrsgdbnllnmA`msto`rs
sdmrdlnqogdld.k`∆.-Khjd`kko`rsodqedbshudonrhshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdO2
g`r`mhchnrxmbq`shbsnmdo`ssdqmvgnrdcdqhu`shnmg`raddmcdrbqhadchm
cds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-Sgdqdrtkshmfrtqe`bdo`q`chflhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(442) P3 positive perfective:
aL laL zaPY mbaLb
"he cut the meat" (some time ago)
aL laL gwQDY mbaLb
"he pounded the meat"
aL laL luJmteL mbaLb
"he bit the meat"
aL laL lKimteL mbaLb
"he reheated the meat"
Sgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsrnesgdO2odqedbshud`qdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`q+
`kv`xrs`jhmfsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqaqnns+`radknv9
(443) P3 negative perfective:
aL laL teL zaJY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t cut the meat"
aL laL teL gwKDY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t pound the meat"
aL laL teL luJmteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t bite the meat"
aL laL teL lKimteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t reheat the meat"
257
The P3 (and P2) tenses with non-progressive
imperfective aspect are unusual in that both positive and
negative paradigms undergo an identical modification. In
section 2.3.3. above, we posited that all of these
constructions undergo a transformation which takes the L
tone echo vowel imperfective suffix from the verb root and
affixes it instead to the tense marker (see (559) below). A
later morpho-tonological rule would apply to the tones of
the verb stems, resulting in tonal neutralization between H
and L tone verbs, as in the positive P3 examples below:
(444) P3 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL laLa nzMaY mbaLb
"he was a meat-cutter" (some time ago)
aL laLa ngwMDY mbaLb
"he was a meat-pounder"
aL laLa ndMumteL mbaLb
"he was a meat-biter"
aL laLa ndMimteL mbaLb
"he was a meat-reheater"
Sgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsrsnsgdoqdbdchmfrdmsdmbdr`krntmcdqfnsgd
r`ldsq`mredqnesgddbgnunvdksnsgdsdmrdl`qjdq`mcsgdsnm`k
mdtsq`khy`shnmsncnvmrsdoodcKsnmdrnmsgdudqarsdlr+`radknv9
258
'334(O2mdf`shudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆k`∆`sd∆nzMaYla`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&s`ld`s,btssdq!
`∆k`∆`sd∆ngwMDYla`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&s`ld`s,ontmcdq!
`∆k`∆`sd∆ndMumte∆la`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&s`ld`s,ahsdq!
`∆k`∆`sd∆ndMimteLla`∆av—æ!gdv`rm&s`ld`s,qdgd`sdq!
LnuhmfnmsnsgdO2oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdx`kkb`qqxsgd
qdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqarsdlr-Sgdqd`qdu`qhntrlnchehb`shnmr
`mctmtrt`ko`ssdqmr`r`qdrtksnesgdsnmdrnesgdoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqr
sgdlrdkudr+gnvdudq+`mcsgdhqcdqhu`shnmr`qdcdrbqhadchmcds`hkhm
rdbshnm1-2-3-`anud-Vgdmsgdqdftk`qoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.md∆.hroqdrdms+
sgdl`qjdqbg`mfdrsn`qhrhmfsnmdhmonrhshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfo`q`chfl9
SgdO2`mcO1oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudrdmsdmbdrs`jdsgddwodbsdc
qd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgdudqaqnns+atssgdOQNFl`qjdqhrqd`khydcnm
`G,Ke`kkhmfsnmdhmrsd`cnesgda`rhbKsnmd+`radknv9
(446) P3 positive progressive imperfective:
aL laL neP nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(some time ago)
aL laL neP ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL laL neP nduJmteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL laL neP ndKimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
259
The negative counterparts to the preceding sentences
have the unusual H tone attached to the end of the /teL/
NEG marker instead of at the beginning of the progressive
marker. The derivation of these sentences is discussed in
detail in section 2.3.5. above. Our paradigm is realized as
below:
(447) P3 negative progressive imperfective:
aL laL teN neL nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL laL teN neL ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL laL teN neL nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t biting meat"
aL laL teN neL ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t reheating meat"
Rhmbd`kko`rssdmrdr`qdqd`khrlncd+sgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq
.rrdæ∫.b`mnoshnm`kkxs`jdsgdok`bdnesgdqdftk`qoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqrddm
`anud-Sgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqhrsnm`kkxqdftk`qvhsgsgddwbdoshnm
sg`ssgdcnvmrsdoenkknvhmfsgdl`qjdqhr`bst`kkxqd`khydcnmsgd
enkknvhmfudqaqnns+adbnlhmfsgdtmtrt`kdouble downstephmsgd
b`rdneKsnmdudqar-Sgdcdqhu`shnmnertbgtmtrt`ko`ssdqmrhrcdrbqhadc
hmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-3-`anud-Sgdqdrtkshmfrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmhr`r
adknv9
260
'337(O2onrhshudoqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆k`∆rrdænzKaYa∆la`∆a!gdv`rbtsshmfld`s!'rnldshld`fn(
`∆k`∆rrdængwVDYD∆la`∆a!gdv`rontmchmfld`s!
`∆k`∆rrdændKumte∆la`∆a!gdv`rahshmfld`s!
`∆k`∆rrdændVimte∆la`∆a!gdv`rqdgd`shmfld`s!
Rhmbdsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.rrdæ∫.enkknvrsgdMDFl`qjdq
.sd∆.+sgdcntakdcnvmrsdohr`krnentmcnmsgdudqaqnnsrhmsgdo`q`kkdk
mdf`shudo`q`chfl+`radknv9
(449) P3 negative progressive imperfective:
aL laL teL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL laL teL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL laL teL sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t biting meat"
aL laL teL sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t reheating meat"
Sgntfgnmdb`mrhfm`ko`rsoqnfqdrrhudld`mhmfaxtrhmfdhsgdqsgd
qdftk`qoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.md∆.nqsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.rrdæ∫.+
nmdb`m`krnbnlahmdansgl`qjdqrhmsgdr`ldbnmrsqtbshnmsgntfgsgd
a`rhbo`rsoqnfqdrrhudld`mhmfqdl`hmrtmbg`mfdc-Vgdmansg
oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqr`qdoqdrdmshmsgdr`ldbnmrsqtbshnm+sgdsnmdr`qd
bnlokdsdkxqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrsgqntfgnts+`rhmsgdonrhshudo`q`chfl
adknv9
261
'34/(O2onrhshudoqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆k`∆rrdænMemy`æù`∆la`∆a!gdv`rbtsshmfld`s!'rnldshld`fn(
`∆k`∆rrdænMengwKDYDLla`∆a!gdv`rontmchmfld`s!
`∆k`∆rrdænMemctælsd∆la`∆a!gdv`rahshmfld`s!
`∆k`∆rrdænMendKimteLla`∆a!gdv`rqdgd`shmfld`s!
@rb`madrddm`anud+sgd.rrdæ∫.l`qjdqoqdbdcdrsgd.md∆.l`qjdqvgdm
ansg`qdoqdrdms-Ansgnesgdrdl`qjdqr`krnenkknvsgdMDF.sd∆.l`qjdq
vgdmdudq`kksgqdd`qdoqdrdms+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chfl9
(451) P3 negative progressive imperfective:
aL laL teL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL laL teL sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL laL teL sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t biting meat"
aL laL teL sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t reheating meat"
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqdw`lhm`shnmnesgdO2sdmrd+`mcvdb`mlnudnm
snsgdqdl`qj`akxrhlhk`qbnmrsqtbshnmr`mcbg`mfdrnesgdO1sdmrd-
262
2-2-Xdrsdqc`xO`rsO19.j`∆.
@rhmsgdO2sdmrd+sgdxdrsdqc`xo`rssdmrdtrdr`mnsgdqnesgd
bnllnmA`msto`rssdmrdl`qjdqr.j`∆.-Khjd`kko`rsodqedbshudonrhshud
bnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdO1`krng`rhsrnvmhchnrxmbq`shbsnmdo`ssdqm'vgnrd
cdqhu`shnmg`raddmcdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud(-Sgd
qdrtkshmfrtqe`bdo`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(452) P2 positive perfective:
aL kaL zaLY mbaLb
"he cut the meat" (yesterday)
aL kaL gwTDY mbaLb
"he pounded the meat"
aL kaL luLmteL mbaLb
"he bit the meat"
aL kaL l`bmtMe mbaLb
"he reheated the meat"
Sgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsrnesgdO1odqedbshud`qdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`q+
`kv`xradhmfqd`khydcnmsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqaqnnsr+`rhm
sgdenkknvhmfo`q`chfl9
(453) P2 negative perfective:
aL kaL teL zaJY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t cut the meat"
aL kaL teL gwKDY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t pound the meat"
aL kaL teL luJmteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t bite the meat"
aL kaL teL lKimteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t reheat the meat"
263
SgdO1mnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmrtmcdqfnsgdr`ld
tmtrt`kbg`mfdrqdedqqdcsnenqO2Õmsgdoqdbdchmfrdbshnm-Sgdonrhshud
o`q`chflhrqd`khydc`radknv9
(454) P2 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL kaLa nzMaY mbaLb
"he was a meat-cutter" (yesterday)
aL kaLa ngwMDY mbaLb
"he was a meat-pounder"
aL kaLa ndMumteL mbaLb
"he was a meat-biter"
aL kaLa ndMimteL mbaLb
"he was a meat-reheater"
Sgdsq`mredqnesgdhlodqedbshudrteehwsnsgdsdmrdl`qjdq`mcsgd
mdtsq`khyhmfbg`mfdrnmsgdudqaqnnssnmdr`qd`krnentmchmsgdo`q`kkdk
mdf`shuddw`lokdrfhudmadknv9
(455) P2 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL kaLa teL nzMaY mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t a meat-cutter"
aL kaLa teL ngwMDY mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t a meat-pounder"
aL kaLa teL ndMumteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t a meat-biter"
aL kaLa teL ndMimteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t a meat-reheater"
SgdO1oqnfqdrrhud`krng`rsgqddcheedqdmsbnmrsqtbshnmrsg`sg`udsgd
r`ldhcdmshb`kld`mhmf+`rvhsglnrsqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdonrhshud
oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmrvhsg.md∆.rg`qdvhsgsgdO2sdmrdsgdtmtrt`k
264
qd`khy`shnmnesg`sl`qjdqnm`G,Ke`kkhmfsnmd+dudmsgntfgsgdudqar
g`udsgdhqqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chfl9
(456) P2 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kaL neP nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat" (yesterday)
aL kaL neP ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL kaL neP nduJmteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL kaL neP ndKimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
Sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shuddw`lokdr`krnrg`qdvhsgsgdO2sdmrdsgd
qd`khy`shnmnesgdtmtrt`kK,GqhrhmfsnmdnmsgdMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.+`r
adknv9
(457) P2 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kaL teN neL nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL kaL teN neL ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL kaL teN neL nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t biting meat"
aL kaL teN neL ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t reheating meat"
SgdO1oqnfqdrrhudrdmsdmbdr`krnrg`qdsgdoqnodqsxneadhmf`akdsn
rvhsbgsnsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.rrdæ∫.+vghkdl`hms`hmhmfsgdr`ld
oqnfqdrrhudld`mhmf+`rhmntqonrhshudo`q`chfladknv9
265
(458) P2 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kaL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(yesterday)
aL kaL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL kaL sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL kaL sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
Sgdtmtrt`knbbtqqdmbdnecntakdcnvmsdoodcGsnmdrnmsgdudqaqnnsrhr
`krnentmchmsgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudo`q`chflrgnvmadknv9
(459) P2 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kaL teL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL kaL teL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL kaL teL sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t biting meat"
aL kaL teL sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t reheating meat"
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdsvnoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqrb`madbnlahmdchm`rhmfkd
oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnm+sghrshldvhsgsgdcnvmrsdoenkknvhmfsgd.rrdæ∫.
l`qjdqadhmfqd`khydcnmsgdenkknvhmf.md∆.l`qjdqhmrsd`cnenmsgdudqaqnns+
`radknv9
(460) P2 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kaL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(yesterday)
aL kaL sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL kaL sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL kaL sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
266
Sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudrdmsdmbdr`krn`qdqd`khydcvhsgsgdqdftk`q
qd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgdudqar+`radknv9
(461) P2 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kaL teL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL kaL teL sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL kaL teL sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t biting meat"
aL kaL teL sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t reheating meat"
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqdw`lhm`shnmnesgdO1sdmrd+vghbgg`raddm
qdl`qj`akxo`q`kkdksnbnmrsqtbshnmrnesgdO2sdmrd-Vdmnvlnudnmsn
sgdO0o`rssdmrd-
267
2-3-Snc`xO`rsO09.md¿∫.
Sgdsnc`xo`rssdmrdhrl`qjdcaxsgdsnm`kkxbnlokdwsdmrdl`qjdq
.md¿∫.hmsgdodqedbshud`rodbs-Onrhshudodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr`qd
hcdmshb`ksnO/bnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnmrvhsgsgdsdmrdl`qjdq
etmbshnmhmf`rsgdehqrsudqa-Sgdhcdmshb`kO0bnmrsqtbshnmrhmbktcdsgd
snmdo`ssdqmnmsgd.md.!`twhkh`qxudqa!`mcsgdoqdrdmbdnesgd
bnmrdbtshudl`qjdq.M,.nmsgdrdbnmc!l`hm!udqa-Gnvdudq+b`qdetk
dw`lhm`shnmnesgdo`q`kkdkO0MDFbnmrsqtbshnmrrgnvrsg`ssgd.md¿∫.
cndrmns`kv`xrg`udsgdbnmrdbtshudl`qjdqvghbgkd`crnmdsnr`xsg`s
sgd.md¿∫.mnknmfdqetmbshnmr`r`udqahm`bnmrdbtshudbnmrsqtbshnmats
g`rmnvadbnld`eqnydml`qjdq-SgdO0onrhshudodqedbshudr'vgnrdO/
bg`q`bsdqhrshbr`qdcdqhudchmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud(`qdqd`khydc`radknv9
(462) P1 positive perfective:
aL neN nzKaY mbMab
"he cut the meat" (earlier today)
aL neN ngwMDY mbMab
"he pounded the meat"
aL neN ndKumteJ mbMab
"he bit the meat"
aL neN ndMimteL mbMab
"he reheated the meat"
Vghkdsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdrg`udsgdO/bnmrdbtshudsnmdrnmsgd
udqar`mcnaidbsr`rvdkk`rsgdoqdrdmbdne`gnlnqf`mhbm`r`koqdehw
'vghbgbntkcadqdf`qcdc`rsgdbnmrdbtshudl`qjdql`qjhmfsgdrdbnmc
268
nesvnbnmrdbtshududqar(+mnmdnesgdrdbg`q`bsdqhrshbr`qdentmcvhsgsgd
o`q`kkdkmdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Hmrsd`csgd!l`hmudqa!hrqd`khydcnm
qdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr`mcsgdm`r`k'bnmrdbtshud>(oqdehwhrlhrrhmf-Sghr
rgnvrsg`s+`ksgntfgsgdO0sdmrdl`qjdqtmcntasdckxcdudknodc
ghrsnqhb`kkxeqnl`udqahm`O/bnmrdbtshudbnmrsqtbshnm+sgdenqldqudqa
g`rmnvadbnldeqnydmhmenql`mcs`jdmto`ehwdconrhshnmoqdbdchmf
sgdMDFl`qjdq'vgdqdsqtdudqarmdudqnbbtq(-Sgdbqtbh`kmdf`shud
o`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(463) P1 negative perfective:
aL neN tMe zaJY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t cut the meat"
aL neN tMe gwKDY mbaLb wDJ
"he didn’t pound the meat"
aL neN tMe luJmteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t bite the meat"
aL neN tMe lKimteJ mbaLb wDJ "he didn’t reheat the meat"
Nmdnesgdtmtrt`ked`stqdrnesgdMfxdla——mudqa`krxrsdlnbbtqrhm
O0mnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+vgdqdsgqddrdo`q`sd
l`qjdqrl`xnbbtqhmsgdonrhshnmnesgdsdmrdl`qjdq-Sgdehqrsnesgdrd
l`qjdqrhrsgdmnql`k'odqedbshud(O0l`qjdq.md¿∫.vghbghredkssnad
rkhfgskxptdrshnm`akd'rxlankhydcaxsgdptdrshnml`qj(hmsgdenkknvhmf
o`q`chfl-Sgdsnmdrnmsgdudqa`qdmnvsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr`ksgntfg
sgdx`qdlnchehdcax`m`cchshnm`kcnvmrsdovghbgenkknvrsgdsdmrd
l`qjdq-SghrqdrtksrhmsgdcntakdcnvmrsdoodcGsnmdrnmtmcdqkxhmfK
269
snmdudqaqnnsr+`rhmntqdw`lokdradknv9
(464) P1 positive non-progressive imperfective:
? aL neN nzKaYaL mbaLb
"he was meat-cutting" (earlier today)
? aL neN ngwVDY
J DL mbaLb
"he was meat-pounding"
? aL neN ndKumteL mbaLb
"he was meat-biting"
? aL neN ndVimteL mbaLb
"he was meat-reheating"
Sgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqarhrlnqdd`rhkxrddmhmsgd
o`q`kkdkMDFo`q`chflvgdqdsgdcnvmrsdoeqnlsgdsdmrdl`qjdqhr
qd`khydcnmsgdenkknvhmfMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.-SgdqhrhmfsnmdnmsgdMDF
l`qjdqhrtmtrt`k`mchrcdqhudchmrdbshnm1-2-4-`anud-Sgdqdrtkshmf
o`q`chflhrnmbd`f`hmbnmrhcdqdcaxMfxdla——mrod`jdqrsnadne
ptdrshnm`akdrs`str+`rl`qjdcaxptdrshnml`qjradknv9
(465) P1 negative non-progressive imperfective:
? aL neN tOe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-cutting"
? aL neN tOe ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-pounding"
? aL neN tOe nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-biting"
? aL neN tOe ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-reheating"
Adb`trdsgdoqdbdchmfsvno`q`chflr`qdneptdrshnm`akd
fq`ll`shb`khsxenqqd`rnmrsg`svhkknmkxadcdrbqhadck`sdqadknv+sgdqd
dwhrsr`qtkdvghbg`kknvrsgdsdmrdl`qjdqsnadbg`mfdcsndhsgdq.kOD.nq
270
.kMe.+fhuhmfetkkxfq`ll`shb`kbnmrstbshnmr-Sgdudqarhmsgdrd
bnmrsqtbshnmr`qd`kv`xrqd`khydcnmsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdr+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfsvno`q`chflr'vghbgg`udhcdmshb`kld`mhmf(9
(466) P1 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL kOD nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was meat-cutting" (earlier today)
aL kOD ngwKDYDL mbaLb
"he was meat-pounding"
aL kOD nduJmteL mbaLb
"he was meat-biting"
aL kOD ndKimteL mbaLb
"he was meat-reheating"
(467) P1 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL kMe nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was meat-cutting" (earlier today)
aL kMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb
"he was meat-pounding"
aL kMe nduJmteL mbaLb
"he was meat-biting"
aL kMe ndKimteL mbaLb
"he was meat-reheating"
Rhmbdsgdcnvmrsdoed`stqdnesgdrdsvn`ksdqm`shudO0l`qjdqr
oqdbdcdrsgdl`qjdq+hshrd`rhdqsnmnshbdsg`ssgdudqasnmdr`qdqdftk`q
enqqd`khrlncd-Hmsgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudo`q`chfl+sgdtmtrt`kqhrhmfsnmd
nmsgdMDFl`qjdqhrnmbdlnqdoqdrdms+`radknv9
271
'357(O0mdf`shudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
aL kOD teN nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-cutting"
aL kOD teN ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-pounding"
aL kOD teN nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-biting"
aL kOD teN ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-reheating"
'358(O0mdf`shudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
aL kMe teN nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-cutting"
aL kMe teN ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-pounding"
aL kMe teN nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-biting"
aL kMe teN ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t meat-reheating"
VdmnvbnldsnsgdO0oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Hs`ood`qrsg`ssgd
hcdmshb`krdfldms`krg`od.md.neansgsgdOQNFl`qjdq`mcsgdO0sdmrd
l`qjdqg`rlnshu`sdc`qdrsqhbshnm`f`hmrsansgnesgdrdl`qjdqrnbbtqqhmfhm
sgdr`ldbnmrsqtbshnm-Sgdenkknvhmfonrhshud`mcmdf`shudo`q`chflr`qd
sgdqdenqdtmfq`ll`shb`khmsgdroddbgne`ctksr'sgdhqtmfq`ll`shb`khsxadhmf
l`qjdcaxsgd!*!hmeqnmsned`bgrdmsdmbd(9
(470) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
+ aL neN nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(earlier today)
+ aL neN nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
+ aL neN nMe nduJmteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
+ aL neN nMe ndKimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
272
(471) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
+ aL neN tMe neP nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
+ aL neN tMe neP ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t pounding meat"
+ aL neN tMe neP nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t biting meat"
+ aL neN tMe neP ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t reheating meat"
Sgntfgsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdr`qdtmfq`ll`shb`khm`ctksroddbg+
bghkcqdmvgng`udmnsxdsl`rsdqdcsgdk`mft`fdvhkktssdqrtbg
rdmsdmbdr-@ctksrg`udmnsqntakdtmcdqrs`mchmfsgdld`mhmfhmsdmcdc+
`mcvhkkbnqqdbssgdbghkcaxrtarshstshmf`bnmrstbshnmvhsgdhsgdq.kOD.nq
.kMe.qdok`bhmfsgdO0.md¿∫.-Enqsgdrdqd`rnmr+vdonrhsrtbg`qdok`bhud
sq`mrenql`shnmvghbghrnakhf`snqxvgdmdudqO0rdmsdmbdr`qd
oqnfqdrrhud+`mcnoshnm`kvgdmdudqsgdx`qdmnm,oqnfqdrrhud
hlodqedbshud-Sgdqdrtkshmfoqnfqdrrhudo`q`chflrg`udqdftk`qqd`khr
snmdrnmsgdudqar+`radknv9
(472) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kOD neL nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(earlier today)
aL kOD neL ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL kOD neL nduJmteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL kOD neL ndKimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
273
(473) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kMe neP nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(earlier today)
aL kMe neP ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL kMe neP nduJmteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL kMe neP ndKimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
Sgdmdf`shudo`q`chflrvghbg`qdo`q`kkdksnsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdr`krn
s`jdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgdudqar+atssgdxg`udtmtrt`kG,Ksnmd
fkhcdrnmsgdOQNFl`qjdq.md∆.-Sgdcdqhu`shnmnesghrrodbh`ke`kkhmfsnmdfkhcd
hrchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-3-`anud-Ntqsvnfq`ll`shb`koqnfqdrrhud
o`q`chflr`qdsgdqdenqd`radknv9
(474) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kOD teL neP nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL kOD teL neP ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL kOD teL neP nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t biting meat"
aL kOD teL neP ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t reheating meat"
(475) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
274
aL kMe teL neP nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
aL kMe teL neP ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL kMe teL neP nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t biting meat"
aL kMe teL neP ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t reheating meat"
SgdO0sdmrdl`qjdq.md¿∫.b`mmnsbnnbbtqvhsgsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhud
'QDOQ(l`qjdq.rrdæ∫.itrs`rhsbntkcmnsbnnbbtqvhsgsgdfdmdq`kOQNF
l`qjdq.md∆.-Vdb`mgnvdudqehmcQDOQl`qjdqvhsgsgd`ksdqm`shudO0
l`qjdqr.kOD.nq.kMe.+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chflr9
(476) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kOD sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb
"he was cutting meat"(earlier today)
aL kOD sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb "he was pounding meat"
aL kOD sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb "he was biting meat"
aL kOD sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb "he was reheating meat"
(477) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kOD sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb
(same glosses as above)
aL kOD sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb
aL kOD sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb
aL kOD sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb
(478) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kMe sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb
(same glosses as above)
aL kMe sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb
aL kMe sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb
aL kMe sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb
275
(479) P1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL kMe sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb
(same glosses as above)
aL kMe sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb
aL kMe sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb
aL kMe sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb
As can be seen above, the REPR marker can signal
progressive meaning on its own or in combination with the
regular PROG marker. The NEG parallels also carry the realis
tones on the verbs, and are realized just like their positive
counterparts with the exception of the addition of the bipartite
negative morpheme /teL...wDJ/, with the /teL/ immediately preceding
the REPR marker /sseJd/, as in the paradigms below:
(480) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kOD teL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he wasn’t cutting meat"
(earlier today)
aL kOD teL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t pounding meat"
aL kOD teL sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t biting meat"
aL kOD teL sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb wDJ "he wasn’t reheating meat"
(481) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kOD teL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
aL kOD teL sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
aL kOD teL sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
aL kOD teL sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
276
(same glosses as above)
(482) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kMe teL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb wDJ
(same glosses as above)
aL kMe teL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb wDJ
aL kMe teL sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb wDJ
aL kMe teL sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb wDJ
(483) P1 negative progressive imperfective:
aL kMe teL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
(same glosses as above)
aL kMe teL sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
aL kMe teL sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
aL kMe teL sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
SghrbnmbktcdrntqrdbshnmnmsgdO0o`rssdmrd+`sdmrdvghbgqdrtksr
hmrdudq`kcheedqdmsrtqe`bdrsqtbstqdrenqhcdmshb`ktmcdqkxhmf
fq`ll`shb`k`mcrdl`mshbed`stqdr-
277
2-4-YdqnO/`mcOQDR9.∂.
Sgdydqnsdmrdg`rehudcheedqdmsjhmcrnebnmrsqtbshnmrhmrsd`cneitrs
sgqddkhjdsgdnsgdqsdmrdr-TrhmfO/snhmchb`sdsgdydqnodqedbshud`mc
OQDRsnhmchb`sdsgdu`qhntrydqnhlodqedbshud'!oqdrdms!(bnmrsqtbshnmr+
sgdenkknvhmfehudonrrhahkhshdr`qdentmchmsgdMfxdla——mydqnsdmrd9
(484)
Zero Tense
realis perfective (P0)
realis non-progressive imperfective (PRES)
realis progressive imperfective (PRES)
irrealis non-progressive imperfective (PRES)
irrealis progressive imperfective (PRES)
Sgdehqrsbnmrsqtbshnmvghbgvdvhkkdw`lhmdhrsgdqd`khrodqedbshud
u`qh`shnmnesgdydqnsdmrd'O/(-Sghrbnmrsqtbshnmhrtrdcsnhmchb`sd
`bshnmrvghbgsnnjok`bdhmsgdhlldch`sdo`rsats`qdbnlokdsd`ssgd
oqdrdmslnldms-@rvhsgnsgdq!o`rs!sdmrdr+sgdsnmdo`ssdqmneO/Õr
hchnrxmbq`shbhmhsronrhshudqd`khy`shnmrxdsbnlokdsdkxqdftk`qhmhsr
mdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsr-Sgdu`qhntrsnm`kcdqhu`shnmrvghbgqdrtkshmsgd
snm`kmdtsq`khy`shnmneG`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsr`mcsgdhqqd`khy`shnmnm`m
tmtrt`kqhrhmfsnmd`qdcdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-Sgd
278
qdrtkshmfonrhshudo`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(485) P0 positive realis perfective:
aL zaNY mbMab
"he has just cut the meat"
aL gwDNY mbMab
"he has just pounded the meat"
aL luLmteN mbMab
"he has just bitten the meat"
aL l`bmteN mbMab
"he has just reheated the meat"
Vghkdsgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsrsnsgdoqdbdchmfo`q`chfl`qd`kk
qd`khydcnmsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqar+sgdx`qdpthsdtmtrt`khm
sg`ssgdxtshkhydsgdhqnvmtmhptdaho`qshsdMDFl`qjdq.j`∆---v—æ.+`r
adknv9
(486) P0 negative realis perfective:
aL kaL zaJY mbaLb wDJ
"he hasn’t just cut the meat"
aL kaL gwKDY mbaLb wDJ
"he hasn’t just pounded the meat"
aL kaL luJmteJ mbaLb wDJ
"he hasn’t just bitten the meat"
aL kaL lKimteJ mbaLb wDJ
"he hasn’t just reheated the meat"
SgdO/mdf`shudhr`krntmhptdhmsg`shs`knmd`kknvrsgdeqnmshmfne
sgdnaidbssn`onrhshnmadsvddmsdmrdl`qjdq`mcudqa-Sghreqnmshmfne
sgdnaidbskd`udrsgdudqahlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdehm`kMDFbkhshb.v—æ.
`mcsghrbkhshbqdctbdrsn`ogq`rd,ehm`kunvdkhmsgdb`rdnelnmnrxkk`ahb
udqaqnnsr`mchscqnornts`ksnfdsgdqhmsgdb`rdnechrxkk`ahbudqaqnnsr-
279
Sgdbnmrsqtbshnmr`qdsnm`kkxqdftk`qdwbdosenqsgdhmsqnctbshnmnesgd
cnvmrsdoed`stqdadenqdsgdKsnmdnesgdeqnmsdcnaidbs'`snm`ked`stqd
sg`shrmncntashmsqnctbdcaxsgdr`ldqtkdsg`seqnmsrsgdnaidbs(+`r
adknv9
(487) P0 negative realis perfective with object fronted:
aL kaL mbMab zaJYaJ
"he hasn’t just cut the meat"
aL kaL mbMab gwKDYDJ
"he hasn’t just pounded the meat"
aL kaL mbMab luJmteJ
"he hasn’t just bitten the meat"
aL kaL mbMab lKimteJ
"he hasn’t just reheated the meat"
Vdb`mmnvstqmeqnlsgdodqedbshudO/bnmrsqtbshnmrsnsgdhlodqedbshud
OQDRbnmrsqtbshnmrnesgdydqnsdmrd-Sgdehqrsbnmrsqtbshnmvdvhkkrgnvhrsgd
mnm,oqnfqdrrhudqd`khroqdrdmssdmrd-Hsg`rsgdtrt`kg`ahst`kld`mhmfnemnm,
oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr`mcsgdsnmdrnmsgdudqar`qdsgdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`q
snmdrenqqd`khrlncdvhsgsgdhlodqedbshudrteehwcdrbqhadchmrdbshnm1-2-1-
`anud-Sgdqdrtkshmfonrhshudo`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(488) PRES positive realis non-progressive imperfective:
280
aL nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he cuts meat"
aL ngwKDYDL mbaLb
"he pounds meat"
aL nduJmteL mbaLb
"he bites meat"
aL ndKimteL mbaLb
"he reheats meat"
Vghkdsgdmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsrsnsgdoqdbdchmfonrhshudrdmsdmbdr
`krng`udsgdqdftk`qqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqar+sgdx`krng`udtmtrt`k
qhrhmfsnmdrnmsgdMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.'vgnrdcdqhu`shnmhrcdrbqhadchm
rdbshnm1-2-4-`anud(+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chfl9
(489) PRES negative realis non-progressive imperfective:
aL teN nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t a meat-cutter"
aL teN ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t a meat-pounder"
aL teN nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t a meat-biter"
aL teN ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t a meat-reheater"
Sgdehm`kqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmrsnadcds`hkdcgdqdvhkkadsgd
oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudu`qh`msrvhsgsgdydqnsdmrd-@rvhsgnsgdqqd`khr
oqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdqddwhrssgqdd`ksdqm`shudrtqe`bdqd`khy`shnmr
snhmchb`sdsgdr`ldqd`khroqnfqdrrhudld`mhmf-Vdvhkkadfhmax
dw`lhmhmfsgdonrhshudo`q`chfltrhmfitrssgdqdftk`q.md∆.oqnfqdrrhud
l`qjdq-Sghrbnmrsqtbshnmg`r`mhchnrxmbq`shbsnmdo`ssdqmnmsgdudqar
vghbghrcdqhudchmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-Sgdqdrtkshmfo`q`chflhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
281
'38/(OQDRonrhshudqd`khroqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
aL neL nzKaYMa mbaLb
"he is in the process of cutting meat"
aL neL ngwMDYMD mbaLb "he is in the process of pounding meat"
aL neL ndKumtMe mbaLb "he is in the process of biting meat"
aL neL nd`amtMe mbaLb "he is in the process of reheating meat"
Vghkdsgdoqdbdchmfonrhshudo`q`chflr`vtmcdqkxhmfqd`khrlncd
udqarqd`khydcnmhqqd`khrudqasnmdo`ssdqmr+sgdenkknvhmfmdf`shud
o`q`chfll`hms`hmrsgdqdftk`qqd`khrudqasnmdrnmsgdrtqe`bd-Nmbd
`f`hm+gnvdudq+sgd.sd∆.MDFl`qjdqhrqd`khydcnm`qhrhmfsnmd+`r
adknv9
(491) PRES negative realis progressive imperfective:
aL teN neL nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t cutting meat"
aL teN neL ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t pounding meat"
aL teN neL nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t biting meat"
aL teN neL ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t reheating meat"
Sgdr`ldjhmcneoqnfqdrrhudld`mhmfb`madrhfm`kkdcax
rtarshstshmfsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhud'QDOQ(l`qjdq.rrdæ∫.enqsgdqdftk`q
oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.md∆.-VgdmsgdQDOQl`qjdqhrtrdcvhsgsgdoqdrdms
sdmrd+sgdudqarqds`hmsgdhqdwodbsdcqd`khrsnmdl`qjhmfatssgdcnvmrsdo
nesgd.rrdæ∫.l`qjdqhrrghesdcsnsgdkdes`mcsgdrtaidbsoqnmntmhrfhudm
282
`Gqdok`bhudsnmd+`rcdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-3-`anud-Sgd
qdrtkshmfonrhshudo`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(492) PRES positive realis progressive imperfective:
aJ ssKe nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he is in the process of cutting meat"
aJ ssKe ngwKDYDL mbaLb
"he is in the process of pounding meat"
aJ ssKe nduJmteL mbaLb
"he is in the process of biting meat"
aJ ssKe ndKimteL mbaLb
"he is in the process of reheating meat"
@rb`madrddmeqnlsgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shuddw`lokdradknv+sgd
mdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnm`krng`rmnql`kqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqarsgntfgsgd
cnvmrsdonesgdoqdbdchmf.rrdæ∫.l`qjdqhr`krn`ccdcsnhs-Sgdrtaidbs
oqnmntmqdl`hmrvhsghsrmnql`kKsnmd`mcsgdvgnkdbnmrsqtbshnmhr
sgdqdenqdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`q+`radknv9
(493) PRES negative realis progressive imperfective:
aL teL sseJ nzKaYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t cutting meat"
aL teL sseJ ngwVDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t pounding meat"
aL teL sseJ ndKumteL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t biting meat"
aL teL sseJ ndVimteL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t reheating meat"
Sgdehm`kv`xnerhfm`kkhmfoqnfqdrrhudld`mhmfvhsgsgdqd`khrydqn
sdmrdhraxbnlahmhmfoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqr.md∆.`mc.rrdæ∫.hmsn`rhmfkd
bnmrsqtbshnm-Vgdmsghrg`oodmrhmonrhshudrdmsdmbdr+sgdr`ldtmtrt`k
283
eqnmshmfnesgdcnvmrsdoed`stqdnesgd.rrdæ∫.l`qjdq`mcsgdrtaidbssnmd
adhmfqdok`bdcax`Gsnmd`rnbbtqdchmsgdo`q`kkdkbnmrsqtbshnmr
vhsgnts.md∆.`krns`jdok`bdgdqd-Sgdqdrtkshmfonrhshudo`q`chflhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(494) PRES positive realis progressive imperfective:
aJ ssKe neL nzaJYaL mbaLb
"he is cutting meat"
aJ ssKe neL ngwKDYDL mbaLb "he is pounding meat"
aJ ssKe neL nduJmteL mbaLb "he is biting meat"
aJ ssKe neL ndKimteL mbaLb "he is reheating meat"
Sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudrdmsdmbdrnmbd`f`hmrgnvnmkxsgdqdftk`q
snmdrdwodbsdcnesgdlnqogdldrhmunkudchm`qd`khrbnmrsqtbshnm+`r
adknv9
(495) PRES negative realis progressive imperfective:
aL teL sseJ nMe nzaJYaL mbaLb wDJ
"he isn’t cutting meat"
aL teL sseJ nMe ngwKDYDL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t pounding meat"
aL teL sseJ nMe nduJmteL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t biting meat"
aL teL sseJ nMe ndKimteL mbaLb wDJ "he isn’t reheating meat"
Sgdoqdbdchmfo`q`chflbnmbktcdrntqdw`lhm`shnmneqd`khrudqa
bnmrsqtbshnmr-Vdmnvrvhsbgsnhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmrvgdqdsgd
mnshbd`akdcheedqdmbdrvhkkadcheedqdmssnmdo`ssdqmrnmsgdudqar'vhsg
284
cnvmrsdoansgoqdbdchmf`mcenkknvhmfsgdudqaqnnshmqdftk`qhqqd`khr
snmdo`ssdqmr(`mcsgd`ardmbdnesgdqd`khrhlodqedbshudm`r`koqdehwnm
sgdudqahmhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr-
Sgdehqrshqqd`khro`ssdqmrsg`svdvhkkknnj`s`qdsgdmnm,oqnfqdrrhud
hqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmrnesgdydqnsdmrd-Sghrbnmrsqtbshnmhrmnsqd`khydc
nmsgdqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrvgdmhshronrhshud+atsg`rhsrnvm
tmhptdsnm`ko`ssdqmcdrbqhadchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-2-`anud-Sgd
qdrtkshmfrtqe`bdrsqtbstqdhrghfgkxtmtrt`khmsg`stmcdqkxhmfGsnmd
udqar`qdqd`khydcnm`knvdqohsbgkdudksg`mtmcdqkxhmfKsnmdudqar+`r
adknv9
(496) PRES positive irrealis non-progressive imperfective:
aL zMaYaL mbaLb
"he is cutting the meat"
aL gwDLYDL mbaLb
"he is pounding the meat"
aL lMumteL mbaLb
"he is biting the meat"
aL l`bmteL mbaLb
"he is reheating the meat"
Sgdhqqd`khrmnm,oqnfqdrrhudmdf`shuddw`lokdrnesgdoqdrdmssdmrd
`qdtmtrt`khm`cheedqdmsv`x-Vghkdsgdudqaqnnsr`qdqd`khydcnmsgd
qdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmrhmsgdmdf`shudo`q`chfl+sgdmnql`k
hlodqedbshudrteehwg`raddmbnlokdsdkxdkhlhm`sdckd`uhmfsgdcnvmrsdo
vghbgenkknvrsgdudqaqnnssnnmkxnbbtqnmsgdenkknvhmfnaidbs-Rtbg`
rteehwcdkdshnmqtkdvntkcmnql`kkxmdtsq`khydrtbg`bnmrsqtbshnmvhsg`
285
o`q`kkdkodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnm+atsgdqdhshronrrhakdsnl`hms`hmsgd
bnmsq`rshmsg`ssghrs`jdrok`bdhmitrssgddmuhqnmldmsvgdqdsgdo`q`kkdk
O/MDFg`rhsrnvmtmhptdmdf`shudl`qjdq.j`∆---v—æ.cdrbqhadcetqsgdq
`anudhmsghrrdbshnm-Sgdqdrtkshmfrsqtbstqdhrsgdnmkxnmdsgdqdenqd
vghbgl`hms`hmrhsrhlodqedbshudld`mhmfhmsgd`ardmbdnesgd
hlodqedbshududqarteehw+`rsgdenkknvhmfo`q`chflrgnvr9
(497) PRES negative irrealis non-progressive imperfective:
aL teL zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he isn’t cutting meat"
aL teL gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he isn’t pounding meat"
aL teL lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he isn’t biting meat"
aL teL lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he isn’t reheating meat"
Sgdoqnfqdrrhudhqqd`khru`qh`msnesgdoqdrdmssdmrdg`rsgdqdftk`q
hqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmnmsgdudqaqnnsrats`mtmtrt`kKGqhrhmfsnmdnm
sgdrtaidbsoqnmntm-Sgdcdqhu`shnmnesghrqhrhmfsnmdhrchrbtrrdchm
rdbshnm1-2-3-`anud-Sgdrdl`mshbenqbdnesgdrdoqnfqdrrhudhqqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmrhrsg`ssgdrod`jdqadkhdudrghroqnonrhshnmsnadsqtdatsgd
hrmns`arnktsdkxrtqd-Sgdonrhshuddw`lokdr`qd9
286
'387(OQDRonrhshudhqqd`khroqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
aN neL zKaYMa mbaLb
"he is probably cutting meat"
aN neL gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he is probably pounding meat"
aN neL lKumtMe mbaLb
"he is probably biting meat"
aN neL lMimtMe mbaLb
"he is probably reheating meat"
Sgdo`q`kkdkhqqd`khroqnfqdrrhudmdf`shudrdmsdmbdrcnmnsg`udsgd
tmtrt`kKGqhrhmfsnmdnmsgdrtaidbsoqnmntm+atshmrsd`c`mtmtrt`k
cnvmrsdoed`stqdadenqdsgdoqnfqdrrhud.md∆.l`qjdq-Sgdcdqhu`shnmne
sghrcnvmrsdoed`stqd`mchsrqdk`shnmsnsgdKGqhrhmfsnmdnesgdonrhshud
rdmsdmbdrhrchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhmrdbshnm1-2-3-`anud-Ntqmdf`shud
o`q`chflhr9
(499) PRES negative irrealis progressive imperfective:
aL teL nMe zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he probably isn’t cutting meat"
aL teL nMe gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he probably isn’t pounding meat"
aL teL nMe lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he probably isn’t biting meat"
aL teL nMe lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he probably isn’t reheating meat"
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqrdbshnmnmsgdydqnsdmrdvgdqdansgo`q`kkdkqd`khr
`mchqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr`qdentmc-Sgdenkknvhmfetstqdsdmrdrvhkk`kk
adtmcdqkxhmfkxhqqd`khr`mc`kkbnlokdsdkxqdftk`qhmsgdhqudqasnmdrhm
sg`ssgdxvhkkadqd`khydcnmsgdqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmr-
287
2-5-Snc`xEtstqdE09.fd∆.
Sgdehqrsnentqetstqdsdmrdrhrcheedqdmseqnl`kksgdnsgdqetstqd
sdmrdrhmsg`ssgdlnqogdld.fd∆.`bsrsnm`kkxkhjd`l`qjdqvghkdsgdnsgdq
etstqdlnqogdldr`bskhjdudqarhmbnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgd
bqtbh`kcheedqdmbdadsvddm`l`qjdq`mc`udqahmhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmrhr
sgd`ardmbdnqoqdrdmbdnecnvmrsdoadenqdsgdvnqchmptdrshnm-Rhmbd
.fd∆.hrsgdnmkxetstqdlnqogdldmnssnadlnchehdcaxcnvmrsdo+hshr
`krnsgdnmkxnmdvghbghrmnsfq`ll`shb`kkxrshkk`udqa+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfdw`lokdr9
(500) F1 positive perfective:
aL geL zKaY mbMab
"he will cut the meat" (later today)
aL geL gwMDY mbMab
"he will pound the meat"
aL geL lKumteJ mbMab
"he will bite the meat"
aL geL lMimteL mbMab
"he will reheat the meat"
Itrs`rsgdonrhshudo`q`chfl`anudv`rqd`khydcnmqdftk`qhqqd`khr
snmdo`ssdqmr+rnsnnenq`kkudqarhmmdf`shudetstqdbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgd
o`q`kkdkE0mdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr`qdpthsdtmtrt`kgnvdudqhmsg`ssgdx
bnms`hm`m`r`koqdehw`ss`bgdcsnsgdetstqdl`qjdq`mc`snmd
odqstqa`shnmnmsgdoqdbdchmfMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.eqnl`Ksnmdsn`qhrhmf
snmd-Sgdcdqhu`shnmenqsgdrdbnmrsqtbshnmrhrchrbtrrdchmcds`hkhm
288
rdbshnm1-2-4-`anud-Sgdqdrtkshmfrtqe`bdo`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(501) F1 negative perfective:
aL teN ngeL zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he will not cut the meat"
aL teN ngeL gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he will not pound the meat"
aL teN ngeL lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he will not bite the meat"
aL teN ngeL lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he will not reheat the meat"
Rvhsbghmfmnvsnsgdmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmrne
sgdE0sdmrd+vdmnshbdsg`ssgdsnmdrnmsgdudqar`qdsgdqdftk`qhqqd`khr
snmdo`ssdqmr-Rhfmhehb`mskx+sgdqd`khrhlodqedbshudm`r`koqdehwnmsgd
udqahr`kv`xr`ardmsvhsgetstqdbnmrsqtbshnmradb`trdetstqd
bnmrsqtbshnmr`qd`kv`xrhqqd`khrhmlncd-Sgntfgsgdm`r`khr`ardms+sgd
bnmrsqtbshnmrrshkkbnmudxsgdr`ldg`ahst`kld`mhmf`rsgdhqo`rsqd`khr
bntmsdqo`qsr-Sgdqdrtkshmfonrhshudo`q`chflhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(502) F1 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL geL zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be meat-cutting"(later today)
aL geL gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be meat-pounding"
aL geL lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be meat-biting"
aL geL lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be meat-reheating"
289
Once again, the parallel negative paradigm finds the
unusual rising tone on the NEG marker and the equally
unusual nasal prefix on the F1 marker, as below:
(503) F1 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL teN ngeL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-cutting"
aL teN ngeL gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-pounding"
aL teN ngeL lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-biting"
aL teN ngeL lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-reheating"
LnuhmfnmsnoqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmrvhsgsgdE0sdmrd+`kksgdsnmdr
`qdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`qenqhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr+hmbktchmfsgdKsnmdnm
sgdoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.md∆.+`radknv9
(504) F1 positive progressive imperfective:
aL geL neL zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be cutting meat"(later today)
aL geL neL gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be pounding meat"
aL geL neL lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be biting meat"
aL geL neL lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be reheating meat"
Nmbd`f`hm+sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudo`q`chflbnms`hmrsgdtmtrt`kqhrhmf
snmdnmsgdMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.`mcsgdtmtrt`km`r`koqdehwadenqdsgdE0
sdmrdl`qjdq.fd∆.+`radknv9
290
'4/4(E0mdf`shudoqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆sd¿mfd∆md∆zKaYMala`∆av—æ!gdvhkkmnsadbtsshmfld`s!
`∆sd¿mfd∆md∆gwMDYMDla`∆av—æ!gdvhkkmnsadontmchmfld`s!
`∆sd¿mfd∆md∆lKumtMela`∆av—æ!gdvhkkmnsadahshmfld`s!
`∆sd¿mfd∆md∆lMimtMela`∆av—æ!gdvhkkmnsadqdgd`shmfld`s!
291
2-6-SnlnqqnvEtstqdE19.snæ.nq.fxn∆.
Sgdqdrsnesgdetstqdbnmrsqtbshnmr`kktrdudqarhmbnmrdbtshududqa
bnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdm`stqdnesgdbnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnmrhm
A`lhkdjdk`mft`fdrv`rehqrscds`hkdcaxGxl`mvgnrgnvdcsg`s
bnmrdbtshududqarcheedqeqnlrdqh`kudqarhmsg`ssgdx`qdrdo`q`sdcax`
bnmrdbtshududqal`qjdqvghbghrsgdgnlnqf`mhbm`r`koqdehwhmlnrs
A`lhkdjdk`mft`fdr'086092/(-@sqtdbnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnmhm
Mfxdla——mmnsnmkxbnms`hmrsvn`ci`bdmsudqar'sgdehqrsudqa`klnrs
`kv`xradhmf`udqanelnshnm(`mcsgdhmsdqudmhmfgnlnqf`mhbm`r`k
bnmrnm`msoqdehw+hshr`krnl`qjdcaxltkshokdcnvmrsdoed`stqdr+nmd
oqdbdchmf+nmdrdo`q`shmf`mcnmdenkknvhmfsgdo`hqneudqar+`rhmsgd
enkknvhmfsxohb`kdw`lokdr9
(506) F1 positive perfective with two consecutive verbs:
aL geL cwKoB zKaY mbMab
"he will come down and cut the meat"
aL geL cwKoB gwMDY mbMab "he will come down and pound the meat"
aL geL pyMu zKaY mbMab
"he will go up and cut the meat"
aL geL pyMu gwMDY mbMab
"he will go up and pound the meat"
Hmsgdoqdbdchmfdw`lokdr+sgdsvn'tmcdqkhmdc(lnshnmudqarvghbg
`qdsgdehqrsudqarhmntqbnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnm`qd.bvnæœ.!sn
bnldcnvm!`mc.oxt∆.!snfnto-!SgdrdsvnG`mcKsnmdudqarvdqd
292
oqdbdcdcaxcnvmrsdovgdmok`bdc`ssgdadfhmmhmfnebnmrdbtshududqa
bnmrsqtbshnmr-SgdE1sdmrd`krng`r`G`mc`Ksnmdudqavghbgb`m
hmchb`sdetstqdshldvgdmok`bdchmrtbg`bnmrsqtbshnm-Vdvhkkqdedqsn
rtbgudqar`r!`twhkh`qxudqar!adb`trdsgntfgsgdxrshkketmbshnm
fq`ll`shb`kkx`rudqar+sgdxg`udknrssgdhqnqhfhm`kudqa`kld`mhmf`mc+
hmbnmrdbtshudbnmrsqtbshnmrkhjdsgdenkknvhmf+sgdxnmkxrhfm`ketstqd
shld-Ntqehqrssvnonrhshudo`q`chflr`qd`renkknvr9
(507) F2 positive perfective:
aL tKo zKaY mbMab
"he will cut the meat" (tomorrow)
aL tKo gwMDY mbMab
"he will pound the meat"
aL tKo lKumteJ mbMab
"he will bite the meat"
(508) F2 positive perfective:
aL gyMo zKaY mbMab
"he will cut the meat" (tomorrow)
aL gyMo gwMDY mbMab
"he will pound the meat"
aL gyMo lKumteJ mbMab
"he will bite the meat"
aL gyMo lMimteL mbMab
"he will reheat the meat"
Bknrdbnlo`qhrnmnesgdoqdbdchmfsvno`q`chflrvhsgsgdnmd
oqdbdchmfsgdlvhkkrgnvsgdqd`cdqsg`ssgdE1sdmrdhrl`qjdcaxdhsgdq
nesgd`twhkh`qxudqar.snæ.nq.fxn∆.hm`bnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnm-Sgd
mdf`shudo`q`chflro`q`kkdksnsgdoqdbdchmf`qd`radknv9
293
'4/8(E1mdf`shudodqedbshud9
aL teL tKo zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he will not cut the meat"
aL teL tKo gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he will not pound the meat"
aL teL tKo lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he will not bite the meat"
aL teL tKo lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he will not reheat the meat"
(510) F2 negative perfective:
aL teL gyMo zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he will not cut the meat"
aL teL gyMo gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he will not pound the meat"
aL teL gyMo lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he will not bite the meat"
aL teL gyMo lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he will not reheat the meat"
SgdE1sdmrdb`m`krntrddhsgdq.snæ.nq.fxn∆.vhsgsgdhlodqedbshud
udqarteehwsnenqlmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+`rvhsg
sgdo`hqneonrhshudo`q`chflradknv9
(511) F2 positive non-progressive imperfective:
294
aL tKo zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be a meat-cutter" (tomorrow)
aL tKo gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be a meat-pounder"
aL tKo lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-biter"
aL tKo lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-reheater"
(512) F2 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL gyMo zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be a meat-cutter"(tomorrow)
aL gyMo gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be a meat-pounder"
aL gyMo lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-biter"
aL gyMo lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-reheater"
Sgdmdf`shudo`q`chflr`qd`rqdftk`q`rsgdhqonrhshudbntmsdqo`qsr+
`rrgnvmaxsgdsvnadknv9
(513) F2 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL teL tKo zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-cutting"
aL teL tKo gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-pounding"
aL teL tKo lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-biting"
aL teL tKo lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-reheating"
(514) F2 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL teL gyMo zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-cutting"
aL teL gyMo gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-pounding"
aL teL gyMo lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-biting"
aL teL gyMo lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-reheating"
Lnuhmfnmsnsgdoqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr+svnrdo`q`sdo`q`chflr
`qd`krnonrrhakdvhsgsgdr`ldE1ld`mhmf+`rhmsgdenkknvhmfdw`lokdr9
295
'404(E1onrhshudoqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆tKomd∆zKaYMala`∆a!gdvhkkadbtsshmfld`s!'snlnqqnv(
`∆tKomd∆gwMDYMDla`∆a!gdvhkkadontmchmfld`s!
`∆tKomd∆lKumtMela`∆a!gdvhkkadahshmfld`s!
`∆tKomd∆lMimtMela`∆a!gdvhkkadqdgd`shmfld`s!
'405(E1onrhshudoqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
`∆gyMomd∆zKaYMala`∆a!gdvhkkadbtsshmfld`s!'snlnqqnv(
`∆gyMomd∆gwMDYMDla`∆a!gdvhkkadontmchmfld`s!
`∆gyMomd∆lKumtMela`∆a!gdvhkkadahshmfld`s!
`∆gyMomd∆lMimtMela`∆a!gdvhkkadqdgd`shmfld`s!
Sgdo`q`kkdkE1mdf`shudoqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr`krng`udsgd
noshnmnedhsgdq.snæ.nq.fxn∆.snhmchb`sdsnlnqqnvetstqdshld+`rhmsgd
svnenkknvhmfonrhshudo`q`chflr9
(517) F2 negative progressive imperfective:
aL teL tKo neL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be cutting meat"
aL teL tKo neL gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be pounding meat"
aL teL tKo neL lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be biting meat"
aL teL tKo neL lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be reheating meat"
296
(518) F2 negative progressive imperfective:
aL teL gyMo neL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be cutting meat"
aL teL gyMo neL gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be pounding meat"
aL teL gyMo neL lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be biting meat"
aL teL gyMo neL lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be reheating meat"
Sghrdmcrntqrdbshnmnmsgdsnlnqqnvetstqdsdmrd`mcsgdsvn
o`q`kkdkbnmrsqtbshnmrsg`sl`x`ksdqm`shudkxaddloknxdcsgqntfgntssg`s
sdmrd-
297
2-7-Chrs`msEtstqdE29.kt∆.
Sgdchrs`msetstqdhrl`qjdchmMfxdla——maxsgd`twhkh`qxudqa.kt∆.
hm`bnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnm-Hsrsnm`koqnodqshdr`qd`kv`xr
bnlokdsdkxqdftk`qenqhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmr`mcvdrg`kksgdqdenqd
oqdrdmssgdo`q`kkdkonrhshud`mcmdf`shudo`q`chflr`ro`hqr+`rvhsgntq
odqedbshuddw`lokdradknv9
(519) F3 positive perfective:
aL lMu zKaY mbMab
"he will cut the meat"(some time from now)
aL lMu gwMDY mbMab
"he will pound the meat"
aL lMu lKumteJ mbMab "he will bite the meat"
aL lMu lMimteL mbMab "he will reheat the meat"
(520) F3 negative perfective:
aL teL lMu zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he will not cut the meat"
aL teL lMu gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he will not pound the meat"
aL teL lMu lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he will not bite the meat"
aL teL lMu lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he will not reheat the meat"
Lnuhmfnmsnsgdmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdE2
sdmrdhrbnlokdsdkxqdftk`qenqdw`lokdrvhsghqqd`khrlncd+`radknv9
298
'410(E2onrhshudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
aL lMu zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be a meat-cutter"
aL lMu gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be a meat-pounder"
aL lMu lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-biter"
aL lMu lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-reheater"
'411(E2mdf`shudmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud9
aL teL lMu zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-cutting"
aL teL lMu gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-pounding"
aL teL lMu lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-biting"
aL teL lMu lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-reheating"
Vdmnvlnudnmsnsgdo`q`kkdkoqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr+vghbg
`kknvnmkxsgdmnql`koqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq.md∆.adb`trdsgdx`qdl`qjdc
enqhqqd`khrlncd-@kksgdsnmdr`qdbnlokdsdkxqdftk`q`rrgnvmhmsgd
enkknvhmfo`q`chflo`hq9
(523) F3 positive progressive imperfective:
aL lMu neL zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be cutting meat"
aL lMu neL gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be pounding meat"
aL lMu neL lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be biting meat"
aL lMu neL lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be reheating meat"
299
(524) F3 negative progressive imperfective:
aL teL lMu neL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be cutting meat"
aL teL lMu neL gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be pounding meat"
aL teL lMu neL lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be biting meat"
aL teL lMu neL lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be reheating meat"
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqrdbshnmnmsgdchrs`msetstqdsdmrdvgdqdsgd
`twhkh`qxudqa.kt∆.hm`bnmrdbtshudhqqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmhr`kv`xrqd`khydc
nmqdftk`qhqqd`khrsnmdo`ssdqmr-
300
2-8-QdlnsdEtstqdE39.k`æù.nq.enæ.
Sgdqdlnsdetstqdsdmrdb`madrhfm`kkdcaxsvncheedqdmsGsnmd
`twhkh`qxudqar+.k`æù.`mc.enæ.+hm`bnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnm+`rhmsgd
onrhshudodqedbshudo`q`chflradknv9
(525) F4 positive perfective:
aL lKaY zKaY mbMab
"he will cut the meat"(a long time from now)
aL lKaY gwMDY mbMab
"he will pound the meat"
aL lKaY lKumteJ mbMab "he will bite the meat"
aL lKaY lMimteL mbMab "he will reheat the meat"
(526) F4 positive perfective:
aL fKo zKaY mbMab
"he will cut the meat"(a long time from now)
aL fKo gwMDY mbMab
"he will pound the meat"
aL fKo lKumteJ mbMab "he will bite the meat"
aL fKo lMimteL mbMab "he will reheat the meat"
Sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudo`q`chflr`qd`krnbnlokdsdkxqdftk`qenq
hqqd`khrlncd+`radknv9
301
'416(E3mdf`shudodqedbshud9
aL teL lKaY zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he will not cut the meat"
aL teL lKaY gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he will not pound the meat"
aL teL lKaY lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he will not bite the meat"
aL teL lKaY lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he will not reheat the meat"
(528) F4 negative perfective:
aL teL fKo zKaY mbMab wDJ
"he will not cut the meat"
aL teL fKo gwMDY mbMab wDJ
"he will not pound the meat"
aL teL fKo lKumteJ mbMab wDJ "he will not bite the meat"
aL teL fKo lMimteL mbMab wDJ "he will not reheat the meat"
Rvhsbghmfsnmnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmr+sgdE3sdmrd
bnmshmtdrsnodqlhsansg`twhkh`qxudqar`retstqdlnqogdldrhm
bnmmdbshnmvhsgsgdudqarteehwvghbgl`qjrhlodqedbshud`rodbs+`r
adknv9
(529) F4 positive non-progressive imperfective:
302
aL lKaY zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be a meat-cutter"
aL lKaY gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be a meat-pounder"
aL lKaY lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-biter"
aL lKaY lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-reheater"
(530) F4 positive non-progressive imperfective:
aL fKo zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be a meat-cutter"
aL fKo gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be a meat-pounder"
aL fKo lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-biter"
aL fKo lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be a meat-reheater"
Sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudo`q`chflr`qd`krnsnm`kkxqdftk`qhmbktchmfsgd
hqqd`khrsnmdrnmsgdudqar+`radknv9
(531) F4 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL teL lKaY zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-cutting"
aL teL lKaY gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-pounding"
aL teL lKaY lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-biting"
aL teL lKaY lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-reheating"
(532) F4 negative non-progressive imperfective:
aL teL fKo zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-cutting"
aL teL fKo gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-pounding"
aL teL fKo lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-biting"
aL teL fKo lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be meat-reheating"
Ntqehm`ko`q`chflrvhkkqdedqsnsgdoqnfqdrrhud`rodbshm
bnlahm`shnmvhsgsgdE3sdmrd+`rhmsgdsvnonrhshudo`q`chflradknv9
303
(533) F4 positive progressive imperfective:
aL lKaY neL zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be cutting meat"
aL lKaY neL gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be pounding meat"
aL lKaY neL lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be biting meat"
aL lKaY neL lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be reheating meat"
(534) F4 positive progressive imperfective:
aL fKo neL zKaYMa mbaLb
"he will be cutting meat"
aL fKo neL gwMDYMD mbaLb
"he will be pounding meat"
aL fKo neL lKumtMe mbaLb
"he will be biting meat"
aL fKo neL lMimtMe mbaLb
"he will be reheating meat"
Sgdo`q`kkdkmdf`shudo`q`chflr`qd`krnsnm`kkxqdftk`qenqhqqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmr+`radknv9
(535) F4 negative progressive imperfective:
aL teL lKaY neL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be cutting meat"
aL teL lKaY neL gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be pounding meat"
aL teL lKaY neL lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be biting meat"
aL teL lKaY neL lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be reheating meat"
(536) F4 negative progressive imperfective:
aL teL fKo neL zKaYMa mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be cutting meat"
aL teL fKo neL gwMDYMD mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be pounding meat"
aL teL fKo neL lKumtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be biting meat"
aL teL fKo neL lMimtMe mbaLb wDJ
"he will not be reheating meat"
304
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqrta,rdbshnmnmsgdE3sdmrd`rvdkk`rntqdmshqd
rdbshnmnmsgdhmchb`shudbnmrsqtbshnmhmMfxdla——ml`hmbk`trdr-
305
CHAPTER 4
3-/-LnqogdldQtkdr
Ctqhmfsgdbntqrdnesghrchrrdqs`shnm+vdg`udchrbtrrdcl`mx
lnqognknfhb`k`mclnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr`rvdkk`rsgdsnmdqtkdr
vghbgvdqdntql`inqenbtr-Hmsghrrdbshnm+vdvhkkenql`khydsgd
lnqognknfhb`k`mclnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrmdbdrr`qxenq`kksgd
dw`lokdreqnlsgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fdsg`sg`udaddmbhsdc`anud-
Vdr`vhmrdbshnm1-2-4-`anud`rtll`qxnesgdsnmdqtkdrmddcdchm
sgdMfxdla——mk`mft`fd-Hm`cchshnmsnsgdl`hmancxnetmnqcdqdcqtkdr+
sgdqddwhrsitrsnmdd`qkxsnmdl`oohmfqtkd`mcsvnk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkdr-
D`bgnesgdqdrtkshmfsgqddanchdrnesnmdqtkdrhroqdbdcdcaxu`qhntr
lnqognknfhb`k`mclnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr-Vdchrbtrradknvsgdsgqdd
anchdrnesgdrdlnqognknfhb`k`mclnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr+bhshmfenq
d`bgqtkdansg`onrrhakdenql`khrl`mc`oqnrdqdmchshnmnehsrdeedbsr-
Sgdehqrsfqntonelnqognknfhb`kqtkdr`qdsgnrdvghbgprecedesgdsnmd
l`oohmfqtkd-@kksgdrdmsdmbdroqdrdmsdchmsghrchrrdqs`shnm`qd
hmchb`shud`mcsq`mrhshud+vhsgvnqcr`mcogq`rdrnqcdqdc`radknv9
(537) Sentence Structure:
SNP
306
(T) (NEG) (RP) (P)
V
ONP
(W)
Sgdoqdbdchmfenqltk`rgnvrsg`ssgdrdmsdmbdrhmntqc`s``qd
qd`khydcadfhmmhmfvhsg`rtaidbsmntmogq`rd'RMO(+enkknvdcax`m
noshnm`ksdmrdl`qjdq'S(+`mnoshnm`kmdf`shudl`qjdq'MDF(+`m
noshnm`kqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'QO(+`mnoshnm`koqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq
'O(+`udqa+`mnaidbsmntmogq`rd'mnsnoshnm`khmntqc`s`(+`mc`m
noshnm`krdmsdmbd,ehm`kmdf`shudbkhshb.v—æ.'rxlankhydc`r!V!(-
Sghrnqcdqhmfnertaidbsradenqdudqar`mcnaidbsrhrbdqs`hmkxsgdb`rd
enq`kksgdc`s`hmsghrchrrdqs`shnm`mclnrskhjdkxsgdb`rdenq`kk
rdmsdmbdrhmMfxdla——m-VghkdMfxdla——mb`mnbb`rhnm`kkxeqnms`m
naidbshmeqnmsnesgdudqa+`klnrs`kksgddw`lokdrhmsghrchrrdqs`shnm
enkknvsgdnudqvgdklhmfo`ssdqmneudqaadenqdnaidbs-Sgdqdenqd+hm
sxonknfhb`ksdqlr+Mfxdla——mhrlnrscdehmhsdkx`mRUNk`mft`fd+`mc`
e`hqkxqhfhcRUNk`mft`fd`ssg`s-Vghkdsgdnoshnm`kl`qjdqrd`bgg`ud
u`qhntrqdrsqhbshnmrnmsgdhqnbbtqqdmbd+hsrgntkcadqdl`qjdcsg`ssgd
mdf`shudlnqogdldrhmsghrchrrdqs`shnm`qd`kv`xraho`qshsd`mc
chrbnmshmtntr+vhsgsgdl`hml`qjdqnemdf`shnmhlldch`sdkxenkknvhmf
sgdsdmrdl`qjdq`mcsgdehm`kmdf`shudbkhshb`kv`xr`bbnlo`mxhmfhs`s
sgddmcnesgdrdmsdmbd-Sgdkhlhsdcmtladqnertaidbsmntmogq`rdrhm
ntqc`s`g`udsgdenkknvhmfrsqtbstqd9
307
'427(RtaidbsMntmOgq`rdRsqtbstqd9
M'@BSM(
RL
Oqn
Sgdoqdbdchmfenqltk`rgnvrsg`srtaidbsmntmogq`rdr`qdqd`khydc
axdhsgdq`mntm'M(enkknvdcax`mnoshnm`k`rrnbh`shudbnmbnqcsnmd
'@BS(`mc`rdbnmcmntmnqax`oqnmntm+d`bgnesgdrdbgnhbdr
nbbtqqhmfadenqd`ehm`krtaidbsl`qjdq'RL(-Vghkdmntmogq`rdrvdqd
mnssgdl`hmenbtrnesghrchrrdqs`shnm+vdchccdudknontqa`rhbsnm`k
qtkdrnmsgdrtqe`bdsnm`kqd`khy`shnmrnemntmrhmhrnk`shnm`mchm
`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rdr'rddrdbshnm1-1-`anud(-Hmrdbshnm1-3-0-`krn
`anud+vdchrbtrrdcansgsgdqd`khy`shnmnertaidbsoqnmntmr`mcsgd
m`stqd`mcadg`uhnqnesgdhqrtaidbsl`qjdqrvghbgrdo`q`sdsgdleqnl
sgdenkknvhmfudqaogq`rdr-Sgdu`qhdsxnemntmogq`rdl`sdqh`kvd
dw`lhmdchmsgdnaidbsonrhshnmv`rltbglnqdkhlhsdc+`rrgnvmadknv9
(539) Object Noun Phrase Structure:
OM
N
Sgdoqdbdchmfenqltk`rs`sdrsg`snaidbsmntmogq`rdrvdqdqd`khydc
ax`mnaidbsl`qjdq'NL(oqdbdchmf`rhmfkdmntm'M(-Vghkdsghr
chrrdqs`shnmg`rkhlhsdchsrdkesnnaidbsmntmogq`rdrvghbgnmkxbnms`hm`
308
rhmfkdmntm+hshrnebntqrdonrrhakdsng`udmntmogq`rdrvghbgbnms`hm
`rrnbh`shudbnmrsqtbshnmrnqoqnmntmr-Ntqehqrslnqognknfhb`kqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(540) Normal Subject Marker Rule:
+SM
Ø
+SMCT
+T
[past
-[fut
/
+T
-past
-fut
x
+verb
-real
-perf
-prog
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdrtaidbsl`qjdq'RL(hrqd`khydc`r`rtaidbs
l`qjdqbnmbnqcsnmd'RLBS(hm`kko`rs`mcetstqdsdmrdrdmsdmbdr'ydqn
sdmrdadhmfsgdnmkxsdmrdvgdqdZo`rs\`mcZets\ed`stqdr`qdhcdmshb`k(-
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdhr`krnsqhffdqdcenqsgdydqnsdmrd+atsnmkxenq
bnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqhqqd`khrlncdvhsghlodqedbshud`mc
mnm,oqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(541) Noun Rule:
N
NCP
NR
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdmntm'M(hrqd`khydc`r`mntmbk`rroqdehw
'MBO(enkknvdcax`mntmqnns'MQ(-Sgdenkknvhmfqtkdrodkkrntssgdsdm
mntmbk`rroqdehwdrneMfxdla——m'@mcdqrnm+087/`927(+vhsgsgd
309
o`qdmsgdrdrdmbknrhmfsgnrdunvdkrnmsgdrdfldms`kshdqvghbg`qd
noshnm`k`ssgdadfhmmhmfne`rdmsdmbd9
(542) Noun Class Prefix Syllabic Rule:
Ø
/(a)N-/
/me-/
/(e)N-/
/meN-/
310
+NR
+C2
+NCP
+NR
+C3
+NCP
+NR
+C4
+NCP
+NR
+C5
+NCP
+NR
+C6
+NCP
+NR
+C7
+NCP
+NR
+C8
+NCP
+NR
+C9
+NCP
+NR
+C10
/
/
/me-/
/
/(a)-/
/
/(e)N-/
+NCP
/
/
/(e)N-/
+NR
+C1
/
/le-/
/(e)-/
+NCP
/
/
/
Sghrqtkdrodbhehdrsgdrdfldms`kl`sdqh`kentmcnmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq
enqsgdmntmbk`rroqdehwhmd`bgnesgdsdmbk`rrdr'rxlankhydcax`
b`osh`k!B!vhsg`mtladq(-Sgdsnmd`rrhfmdcsnd`bgnesgdrdoqdehwdrhr
rodbhehdcaxsgdenkknvhmfqtkd9
(543) Noun Class Prefix Tone Rule:
[+NCP]
+ # +
Ø
L
/
+
+
Sghrqtkdr`xrsg`s`mxrxkk`akdnmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq'#(vghbghr`mntm
bk`rroqdehwZ*MBO\hrfhudm`Ksnmdhmsgdr`ldlnqogdldnmsgdsnm`k
shdq-Rhmbdsghrqtkdoqdbdcdrsgdsnm`kl`oohmfqtkd+sghrqtkdcndrmns
rodbhexsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdvghbgsg`sqtkdvhkk`ccadsvddmsgdsvnshdqr-
Hsrgntkcadldmshnmdcsg`ssgd`bst`kmntmqnnsr'MQ(`mcsgdoqnmntmr
'Oqn(vntkcadrodkkdcntsadsgdkdwhbnmadenqd`mxnesgdrdoqdrdmsqtkdr
`qd`kknvdcsnnodq`sd-Sgdqd`cdqhmsdqdrsdchm`rl`kkk4//,vnqcEqdmbg,
Mfxdla——mkdwhbnmhrqdedqqdcsn@mcdqrnm'087/a(-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
311
(544) Concord Tone Rule:
Ø
L
+NR
+C1
+C9
/
[+...CT]
+
+
+ ____ +
[+...CT]
+
+
H
/
+ ____ +
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`s`mxbnmbnqcsnmdl`qjdq'---BS(hretqsgdq
rodbhehdc`r`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdldenkknvhmfmntmbk`rrqnnsr'MQ(
eqnlbk`rrdr0`mc8+`mc`r`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdldenkknvhmfmntm
qnnsreqnlnsgdqbk`rrdr-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(545) Object Marker Rule:
[+OM]
Ø
H
¶
+
¶
+
/
+NCP
+C2
+C4
+C5
+C6
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdnaidbsl`qjdqhr`cchshnm`kkxrodbhehdc`r`G
snmdsnm`klnqogdldoqdbdchmfnaidbsoqdehwdr'MBO(eqnlmntmbk`rrdr
1+3+4nq5-
Sgdoqdbdchmfqtkdrg`udg`mckdcsgdnudq`kkrdmsdmbdrsqtbstqd`mc
sgdmntmogq`rdhmrne`q`rsgdx`qdcdudknodchmsghrchrrdqs`shnm-Vdmnv
lnudnmsnsgdl`mxcheedqdmsdkdldmsrvghbgqdk`sdsnsgdudqa`k
312
l`qjhmfne`rdmsdmbd-Ntqehqrssvnqtkdrg`mckd`kksgd`cchshnm`k
rdfldms`kl`sdqh`kmdbdrr`qxhmmdf`shudbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdenkknvhmf
qtkdrodbhehdrsgdm`stqdnesgdrdmsdmbd,ehm`kMDFbkhshb9
(546) Negative Clitic Rule:
+
wD
//
Ø
/
+
H
+W
+neg
//
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`sntqrdmsdmbd,ehm`kMDFbkhshb'V(hretqsgdq
rodbhehdc`r.v—.nmsgdrdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mc`rhmfkdGsnmdnmsgd
snm`kshdq-Nmbd`f`hm+sgdtmhsrrodbhehdcnmsgdsvnshdqr`qdmns
`rrnbh`sdcax`m`rrnbh`shnmkhmdaxsghrqtkd`rsghrqtkdoqdbdcdrsgd
fdmdq`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdvghbg`bbnlokhrgdrsgds`rj-Ntqmdwsqtkdhr9
(547) Negative Marker Rule:
#
ka
#
#
L
#
#
te
#
#
L
#
Ø
/
+T
-past
-fut
+NEG
+verb
+perf
+NEG
/
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdmdf`shudl`qjdq'MDF(hr`cchshnm`kkx
rodbhehdc`r`.j`.hmO/bnmrsqtbshnmr`mc`r`.sd.hm`kknsgdq
bnmsqtbshnmr+d`bgnesgdrdl`qjdqr`krnbnmrhrshmfne`rhmfkd
tm`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq-
313
Vdvhkkmnvdw`lhmdsgdqtkdrmddcdcsnbnmudxsgdrdl`mshbbnmbdos
nesdmrd-Sgdenkknvhmfqtkdretqsgdqrodbhexsgdrxkk`ahb`mcsnm`kbnmsdms
nesdmrdl`qjdqr`mc`twhkh`qxudqar`bbnqchmfsnsgdhqsdlonq`ked`stqdr-
Vdadfhmvhsgsgdlnrsqdlnsdo`rssdmrd`mcvnqjntqv`xsnsgdlnrs
qdlnsdetstqdsdmrd-Rhmbdsgdqtkdenqsgdqdlnsdo`rssdmrd'O3(l`qjdq
`bst`kkxbg`mfdrnmdnesgdfq`ll`shb`ked`stqdrhmnqcdqsneddcsgdqtkd
enqsgdchrs`mso`rssdmrd'O2(l`qjdq+`kkqtkdrqdedqqhmfsnsgdnqhfhm`kO3
ed`stqdrltrsoqdbdcdsgdl`qjdqqtkd-Hm`cchshnm+sgdqtkdvghbg
rodbhehdrntqm`r`koqdehwenqhlodqedbshudqd`khrbnmrsqtbshnmrltrs
oqdbdcdsgdbg`mfhmfnesgdqd`khred`stqdeqnl!*!sn!,-!Ntqmdwsqtkd
hrsgdqdenqdsgdenkknvhmf9
(548) Imperfective Realis Prefix Rule:
Ø
/N-/
/
+verb
+real
-perf
Sghrqtkd`ccr`gnlnqf`mhbm`r`kbnmrnm`msoqdehwnmsnsgd
adfhmmhmfnesgdudqarsdlhesg`srsdlhransgqd`khrlncd`mc
hlodqedbshud`rodbs-Hsrgntkcadmnshbdcsg`ssgd`ccdcl`sdqh`kv`r
rs`sdc`r.M,.snhlokxsg`ssghroqdehwhrnotrxkk`ahb+h-d-hsb`mmns
`rrnbh`sdsn`mxsnmd+'hmbnmsq`rssnlnrsgnlnqf`mhbm`r`kbnmrsnm`ms
oqdehwdrhmMfxdla——m(-Mnvsg`ssgdhlodqedbshudqd`khroqdehwg`raddm
rodbhehdc+vd`qdeqddsnbg`mfdsgdqd`khred`stqdenqsgnrdbnmrsqtbshnmr
314
vghbgdmctovhsghqqd`khrsnmdrhmrsd`cneqd`khrnmdr-Ntqmdwsqtkdhr
sgtrsgdenkknvhmf9
(549) Realis
[+real]
Irrealis Rule:
[-real]
/
+T
+past
+rem
-near
+verb
-prog
-neg
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
+prog
-neg
Sghrqtkdbg`mfdrsgded`stqdZ*qd`k\snZ,qd`k\enqsgqddjhmcrne
bnmrsqtbshnmr9O3onrhshudodqedbshudr+O3onrhshudmnm,oqnfqdrrhud
hlodqedbshudr'ansgnesgdoqdbdchmfadhmfZ,oqnf\(+`mcydqnonrhshud
oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshudr-Sghrqtkdsgdqdenqdakddcrsgdqd`khronk`qsnmd
qtkd`mceddcrsgdhqqd`khronk`qsnmdqtkd-
Vd`qdmnvqd`cxsndw`lhmdntqsdmrdl`qjdqqtkdr+sgdehqrsne
vghbgg`mckdrsgdbnlokhb`sdcO3bnmrsqtbshnm+`radknv9
(550) Remote Past Tense Marker Rule:
#
[-near]
laY
(P4)
#
[+near]...
/
#
H
#
+T
+past
+rem
x
[+verb]
315
Sghrqtkdbg`mfdrsgdZmd`q\ed`stqdeqnl!,!sn!*!`mc`ccr`m
`cchshnm`kGsnmdl`qjdq.k`ù.hlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdudqaqnns
vgdmdudqsgdsdmrdl`qjdq'S(hrl`qjdcenqO3sdmrd-Sgdbg`mfhmfne
sgded`stqdsgdqdaxeddcrntqmdwsqtkdvghbghrsgdenkknvhmf9
(551) Distant Past Tense Marker Rule:
#
la
#
#
L
#
Ø
/
(P3)
+T
+past
+rem
+near
SghrqtkdrodbhehdrsgdO2sdmrdl`qjdqsnbnmrhrsne.k`.nmsgd
rdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mc`Ksnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(552) Yesterday Past Tense Marker Rule:
#
ka
#
Ø
/
#
L
#
(P2)
+T
+past
-rem
-near
SghrqtkdrodbhehdrsgdO1sdmrdl`qjdqsnbnmrhrsne.j`.nmsgd
rdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mc`Ksnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
316
(553) Today Past Tense Marker Rule:
#
ne
#
Ø
/
(P1)
+T
+past
-rem
+near
# L H L #
SghrqtkdrodbhehdrsgdO0sdmrdl`qjdqsnbnmrhrsne.md.nmsgd
rdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mcK+G`mccnvmrsdo'C(ed`stqdrnmsgdsnm`k
shdq-Rhmbdsghrl`qjdqmddcrsgdKGqhrhmfsnmdfkhcdsnad`kv`xr
oqdrdms+sgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdreqnlsgdrdfldms`kshdq`qdcq`vmhmaxsgd
oqdbdchmflnqognknfhb`kqtkd`mc`qdmnskdessnsgdk`sdqsnmdl`oohmf
qtkd+vghbgvntkcvqnmfkx`rrnbh`sdnmkxsgdehqrssnmdnesghrlnqogdld
snsgdrxkk`ahb.md.-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(554) Today Future Tense Marker Rule:
#
ge
#
Ø
/
#
L
#
+T
+fut
-rem
+near
(F1)
x
[+verb]
Sghrqtkdrodbhehdrsg`ssgdE0sdmrdl`qjdqbnmrhrsrne.fd.nmsgd
rdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mc`rhmfkdKsnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq+`mcsgdx`qd
hmrdqsdchlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdudqa-Sghrhrsgdnmkxetstqdsdmrd
l`qjdqsg`scndrmnshsrdkeadbnld`m`twhkh`qxudqahm`bnmrdbtshududqa
bnmrsqtbshnm+`r`kksgdenkknvhmfsdmrdl`qjdqrcn-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
317
'444(SnlnqqnvEtstqdSdmrdL`qjdqQtkd9'E1(
#
[+verb]
to #
#
H
#
Ø
/
+T
+fut
-rem
-near
[+verb]
x
[+verb]
# gyo #
#
L
#
Sghrqtkd`ccrdhsgdqnesvn`twhkh`qxudqarsnrhfmhexsgd`bshnmvhkk
s`jdok`bdsnlnqqnv-Sgdehqrsnesgdrd`twhkh`qxudqar'nqcdqdc
hlldch`sdkxadenqdsgdl`hmudqahm`bnmrdbtshududqabnmrsqtbshnm(
bnmrhrsrne.sn.nmsgdrdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mc`Gsnmdnmsgdsnm`k
shdq+vghkdsgdrdbnmcbnmrhrsrne.fxn.nmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq`mc`Ksnmdnm
sgdsnm`kshdq-Rhmbdansgnesgdrdl`qjdqr`qdk`adkkdc!Z*udqa\+!
vghbgdudqnmdhrbgnrdmhrk`sdqfhudm`cnvmrsdoed`stqdaxld`mrnesgd
qtkdenqhqqd`khrlncd-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrrhlhk`q+`radknv9
(556) Distant Future Tense Marker Rule:
[+verb]
# lu #
Ø
/
#
L
#
+T
+fut
+rem
+near
x
(F3)
[+verb]
Sghrqtkdrodbhehdrsg`ssgdshldrhfmhehdcaxchrs`mssdmrded`stqdrhr
qd`khydcax`cchmfhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdl`hmudqa`m`twhkh`qxudqa
318
vghbgbnmrhrsrne.kt.nmsgdrdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`mc`Ksnmdnmsgd
snm`kshdq-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(557) Remote Future Tense Marker Rule:
(F4)
[+verb]
# laY #
#
H
#
Ø
/
+T
+fut
+rem
-near
x
[+verb]
[+verb]
# fo #
#
H
#
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdlnrsqdlnsdetstqdshldqdedqdmbdhrhmchb`sdc
axsgd`cchshnmnedhsgdqnesvn`twhkh`qxudqarhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgd
l`hmudqa-Sgdehqrsnesgdrd`twhkh`qxudqarbnmrhrsrne.k`ù.nmsgd
rdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdqvghkdsgdrdbnmcbnmrhrsrne.en.-Vghbgdudqudqa
hrbgnrdmhr`bbnlo`mhdcax`rhmfkdGsnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq-@rvhsg`kk
sgdnsgdqhqqd`khr`twhkh`qxudqar+`cnvmrsdoed`stqdhr`ccdcaxntqk`sd
hqqd`khrlncdqtkd-Sghrbnmbktcdrsgd`cchshnm`krodbhehb`shnmnentq
cheedqdmssdmrded`stqdr-
Sgdmdwsqtkdrvghbgvdvhkkenql`khyd`qdsgnrdcd`khmfvhsgsgd
hmsdqm`krsqtbstqdnesgdudqa-Sgdehqrsnesgdrdqtkdrhrsgdenkknvhmf9
319
'447(Qd`khrOqdehwQtkd9
Ø
-[T
#
+verb
+real
+ $ #
#
+ [T
/
#
Sghrqtkd`ccr`ekn`shmfonk`qsnmd',√S(snm`koqdehwhlldch`sdkx
adenqd`mxqd`khrudqarsdl-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(559) Imperfective Suffix Rule:
+
EV
+T
+past
[rem
[near
#
Ø
/
+
L
+verb
-perf
-prog
#
+verb
-perf
+ # +
L
EV
+
#
+
#
/
+
+
te
T
+
+verb
-perf
+ # +
#
/
+
L
#
+
T
+
Sghrqtkdrodbhehdrsg`ssgdhlodqedbshududqarteehwvhkkad`ccdcsn
sgddmcne`udqarsdldwbdosenqO1`mcO2mnm,oqnfqdrrhudhlodqedbshud
bnmrsqtbshnmrvgdqdhshr`ss`bgdcsnsgdsdmrdl`qjdqZ*S\-Sgdrteehw
bnmrhrsrne`Ksnmddbgnunvdk'DU(dwbdoshlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfsgd
320
snmdkdrrrteehw.,sd.vgdqdhsbnmrhrsrne`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdld-Ntq
mdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(560) Realis Progressive Marker Rule:
# sse #
# H L #
Ø
/
#
#
+T
+past
+RP
[+P]
x
+verb
+real
#
H
#
+T
+past
# sse #
+RP
x
+verb
+real
/
# H L #
+T
[past
-fut
[rem
-near
+RP
([+P]) [+verb]
x
Sghrbnlokdwqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'QO(hr
etqsgdqrodbhehdc`rdhsgdq.rrd.nmsgdrdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdqvhsg`m
`bbnlo`mxhmfGsnmdenkknvdcax`cnvmrsdoed`stqd'C(nmsgdsnm`kshdq
nqax`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdldvgdmsgdrdmsdmbdhrl`qjdcenqansgo`rs
sdmrd`mcqd`khrlncd`mcsgdqdftk`qoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'O(hroqdrdms-
Vgdmsgdqdftk`qoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqhr`ardmshmrtbg`bnmrsqtbshnm+sgd
nmkxbgnhbdenqsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqhrsgd.rrd.vhsgGsnmd`mc
cnvmrsdoed`stqdr-RhmbdsgdO3sdmrdg`raddml`qjdcZ,qd`k\axsghr
321
shld+hshrmns`eedbsdcaxsgdoqdbdchmfo`qsnesgdqtkd-Rhlhk`qkx+ydqn
sdmrdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmr`qdmns`eedbsdcadb`trdsgdx`qd
Z,o`rs\-SgdO3`mcydqnqd`khroqnfqdrrhudbnmrsqtbshnmrvhkkad`eedbsdc
axsgdk`rso`qsnesgdoqdbdchmfqtkdvghbgr`xrsg`ssgdxltrsad
qd`khydcaxsgdl`qjdq.rrd.nmsgdrdfldms`kshdq`mcGCnmsgdsnm`kshdq
hesgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqhroqdrdmsvgdsgdqsgdqdftk`qoqnfqdrrhud
l`qjdqhroqdrdmsnqmns-Sgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdr`qdmnsrodbhehdcaxsghr
qtkd`rsgdk`sdqsnmdl`oohmfqtkdvhkkqhfgskx`rrnbh`sditrssgdGsnmdnm
sgdsnm`kshdqsnsgd.rrd.nmsgdrxkk`ahbshdq-SgdGsnmdsnm`klnqogdld
hrsgdenbtrne`lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbgenkknvrsgdsnmdl`oohmf
qtkd-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(561) Progressive Marker Rule:
#
ne
#
Ø
+P
/
#
L
#
Sghrqtkdrs`sdrsg`ssgdmnql`koqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqhrqd`khydc`r.md.
nmsgdrdfldms`krxkk`ahbshdq`knmfvhsg`bnqqdronmchmfKsnmdnmsgd
snm`kshdq-Sghrl`qjdqhrmnskhlhsdchmchrsqhatshnmvhsgqdrodbssnlncd+
atsl`xadtrdcsnrhfm`koqnfqdrrhud`rodbshmansgqd`khr`mchqqd`khr
bnmrsqtbshnmr-
322
Vdmnvlnudnmsn`fqntonelnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbg`cc+
cdkdsd`mcbg`mfdansgsnmdr`mc`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrhmqdrsqhbsdc
fq`ll`shb`kdmuhqnmldmsr-Lnrsnesgdrdqtkdr`qdnqcdqdc`esdqsgd
fdmdq`ksnmdl`oohmfqtkdg`rnodq`sdcatsadenqdsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdr
g`udg`c`mnoonqstmhsxsn`ookx-Sgdedvlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr
vghbgltrsadnqcdqdc`esdqsgdmnql`ksnmdqtkdrvhkknmkxadcdrbqhadc
`ssgddmcnesghrrdbshnm-
Sgdehqrslnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbgvdrg`kkdw`lhmd`qdsgnrd
vghbgbg`mfdsnmdr`mc`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrvhsghmsgdudqa`bbnqchmfsn
u`qhntrsdlonq`k+`rodbst`k`mclnc`ked`stqdr-Sgdehqrsnesgdrdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(562) P3 Positive Perfective Rule:
#
+
V
+
#
/
#
-[T
+
[T
+
Ø
#
+T
+past
+rem
+near
x
+verb
+perf
-neg
L
Sghrqtkd`ccr`rhmfkdKsnmdsnm`klnqogdld`esdqsgdudqarsdl'U(
`mc`rrnbh`sdrsghrmdvsnmda`bjsnsgdk`rsrxkk`akdnesg`srsdl
withoutchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdsnmd'√S(`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Sghrqtkd
hrnmkxsqhffdqdcvgdmsgdbnmrsqtbshnmhrl`qjdcenqO2sdmrd+odqedbshud
`rodbs'qdrtkshmfhmsgdonk`q',√S(snmdoqdehw(`mconrhshudonk`qhsx-Ntq
323
mdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(563) P2 Positive Perfective Rule:
#
#
+
V
#
/
#
Ø
-[T
+
[T
#
+T
+past
-rem
-near
x
+verb
+perf
-neg
L
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Ksnmdinsidesgdonk`qqd`khrsnmd',√S(lnqogdld
`mc`rrnbh`sdrsghrmdvsnmdsnbothsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfrxkk`akd
'#(`mcsgdenkknvhmfudqaqnns'U(vhsgntschr`rrnbh`shmf`mxsnmdrentmc
sgdqd-Sgdqtkdhrnmkxsqhffdqdchmbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqO1
sdmrd+odqedbshud`rodbs`mconrhshudonk`qhsx-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(564) P1 Positive Perfective Rule:
n-
#
Ø
+
V
#
/
# -[T
324
+
[T
#
+T
+past
-rem
+near
x
+verb
+perf
-neg
Sghrqtkdlnudrsgdonk`qqd`khrsnmdsnm`klnqogdld',√S(eqnl
hlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdudqarsdl'U(snhlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfsgd
r`ldrsdlvghkdkd`uhmfhmhsrnqhfhm`konrhshnm`gnlnqf`mhbm`r`k
bnmrnm`msoqdehw'rxlankhydc`r`knvdq,b`rd!m!adb`trdhsb`mmns
`rrnbh`sdvhsg`mxsnmd(-Sghrqtkdhrnmkxsqhffdqdcvgdmbnmrsqtbshnmr
`qdl`qjdcenqO0sdmrd+odqedbshud`rodbs`mconrhshudonk`qhsx-
Vd`qdmnvqd`cxsnlnudnmsncds`hksgdmnm,o`rslnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkdr-Sgdehqrsnesgdrdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(565) Zero Positive Perfective Rule:
+
¶
+
V
#
+SM
/
+
T
¶ -[T
+
[T
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
+perf
-neg
#
L
Sghrqtkdbg`mfdrsgdrtaidbsl`qjdq'RL(bnmbnqcsnmd'S(sn`K
snmdand`rrnbh`sdrsghrmdvsnmd`bqnrrsgdogq`rdantmc`qx'ï(`mcsgd
hmsdqudmhmfonk`qqd`khrsnmdsnm`klnqogdld',√S(snsgdudqaqnns
rxkk`akd'U(withoutchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdsnmd'√S(`kqd`cxentmcsgdqd-
Sghrqtkdhrnmkxsqhffdqdchmbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqydqn
325
sdmrd+odqedbshud`rodbs`mconrhshudonk`qhsx-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(566) Zero Positive Irrealis Non-progressive Imperfective
Rule:
#
V
+
+
I
#
/
#
T
+
Ø
+
L
#
+T
-past
-fut
x
+verb
-real
-perf
-prog
-neg
L
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdldaftersgdudqarsdl'U(ats
beforesgdhlodqedbshud'H(Ksnmdrteehw-Sgdqtkdhrnmkxsqhffdqdc
vgdmbnmrsqtbshnmr`qdl`qjdcenqydqnsdmrd'mdhsgdqo`rsmnqetstqd(+
hqqd`khrlncd+ansghlodqedbshud`mcmnm,oqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr+`mconrhshud
onk`qhsx-
Vdb`mmnvdw`lhmdsgnrdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbg`eedbssgd
mdf`shud`mcoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdqrhm`udqaogq`rd-Ntqehqrsqtkdcnbjr
sgdGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldvghbgl`xnbbtqsnl`qjqd`khroqnfqdrrhud
bnmrsqtbshnmr+`radknv9
326
(567) Realis Progressive H Tone Docking Rule:
#
#
N
L
#
#
#
H
#
#
H
P
#
#
L
#
#
P
#
#
L
/
+verb
+neg
/
+verb
-neg
#
Sghrqtkd`rrnbh`sdrsgdGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldnesgdqd`khr
oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'QO(snsgdmdf`shudl`qjdq'M(nmhsrkdeshertbg`
mdf`shudl`qjdqhroqdrdms-Nsgdqvhrd+sgdGsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhr
`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdoqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'O(nmhsrqhfgs-Hmansgb`rdr+sgd
`cchshnm`k`rrnbh`shnmkhmdrcnnotchr`rrnbh`sd`mxsnmdr`kqd`cx
`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdbgnrdmrxkk`akdr-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(568) Realis Progressive Revision Rule:
+
#
¶
sse
#
/
+
T
Ø
¶
H (T) L
L
#
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
+real
-perf
+prog
-neg
H
327
Sghrghfgkxbnlokhb`sdc`mcdpt`kkxqdrsqhbsdclnqogn,snmnknfhb`k
qtkdcdkdsdrsgdsnmd'S(oqdbdchmfsgdqd`khroqnfqdrrhud'QO(l`qjdq
.rrdæ∫.+`rrnbh`sdrsgdGsnmdnesg`sl`qjdqsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf
rxkk`akd+cdkdsdrsgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdadsvddmsgdGsnmd`mcsgdrxkk`akd
.rrd.+hmrdqsrnqbg`mfdr`mnoshnm`kekn`shmfsnmdhmsn`Ksnmd+`mc
bg`mfdrsgdsgdehm`k`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdhmsn`Gsnmd-Sghrsnmdqtkdnmkx
nodq`sdrnmbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqydqnsdmrd+qd`khrlncd+
hlodqedbshud`mcoqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr+onrhshudonk`qhsx+`mcg`rbgnrdm
sgd.rrdæ∫.noshnmeqnlsgdd`qkhdqqd`khroqnfqdrrhudlnqogdldqtkd-Ntq
mdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(569) F1 Negative Revision Rule:
n-
#
te
#
Ø
#
ge
#
/
#
L
#
Ø
#
L
#
+T
+fut
-rem
+near
+verb
+neg
H
Sghrqtkd`ccr`lnqogdldhlldch`sdkx`esdqsgdMDFl`qjdq.sd∆.`mc
hlldch`sdkxadenqdsgdsdmrdl`qjdq.fd∆.hm`kkE0bnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgd
`cchshnm`klnqogdldbnmrhrsrne`gnlnqf`mhbm`r`kbnmrnm`msoqdehw
328
'rxlankhydc`r`knvdqb`rd!m,!adb`trdhsb`mmns`rrnbh`sdvhsg`snmd(
nmsgdrdfldms`kshdq`mc`Gsnmdnmsgdsnm`kshdq-Sghr`cchshnm`kG
snmdhr`kv`xr`rrnbh`sdca`bjsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfMDFl`qjdq
withoutchr`rrnbh`shmfsgdsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Ntqmdwsqtkdhr
sgdenkknvhmf9
(570) Future Tense Subject Marker Revision Rule:
+
#
#
¶
V
+
+SM
+verb
+fut
+SM
+verb
+fut
/
+
H
#
+
#
#
H
¶
T
+
¶
/
+
L
#
H
¶
Ø
Sghrqtkdnmkx`ookhdrsnGsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdq'RL(bnmbnqcsnmdrhm
etstqdsdmrdbnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdqtkdg`rsvno`qsr+cdodmchmftonmsgd
m`stqdnesgdk`rssnmd`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfrxkk`akd
'#(-Hesgdk`rs`rrnbh`sdcsnmdnesgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdhr`Gsnmd+sgdG
snmdsnm`klnqogdldhr`rrnbh`sdcsnsg`srxkk`akdnmhsrkdesvhsgnts
329
chr`rrnbh`shmfsgdGsnmd`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd+`mcsgdmdvkx
`rrnbh`sdcGsnmdhr`krnlnudcsnsgdqhfgs`mchmrdqsdcinsidesgdudqa
qnnslnqogdld'U(-Sghrqtkdnmkxl`jdrrdmrdvgdmhshrqdb`kkdcsg`shs
eddcrsgdk`sdhqqd`khrlncdqtkdvghbgvhkkmnvhmrdqs`onk`qsnmd
betweensgdsvnGsnmdr`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdr`ldrxkk`akd'#(-Hesgdk`rs
`rrnbh`sdcsnmdnesgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akdhr`Ksnmd+sgdGsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldcqnorntsbnlokdsdkx+`rhmsgdrdbnmco`qsnesgdoqdbdchmf
qtkd-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(571) P0 Positive Subject Marker Rule:
+
¶
+
V
+
+SM
/
+
Ø
¶ -[T + [T
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
+perf
-neg
+
L
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Ksnmdsnm`klnqogdldenqsgdrtaidbsl`qjdq'RL(
hmonrhshudO/bnmrsqtbshnmrand`rrnbh`sdrsg`ssnmd`bqnrrsgd
hmsdqudmhmfonk`qqd`khrsnmd',√S(snsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd'U(vhsgnts
chr`rrnbh`shmfsgdudqaqnnssnmd'√S(`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Ntqmdws
qtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
330
(572) Zero Tense Realis Non-progressive Imperfective Subject
Marker Rule:
+
#
+
¶
+
V
+
+SM
/
+
T
+
Ø
¶ -[T + [T
+T
-past
-fut
+
+verb
+real
-perf
-prog
L
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Ksnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgd
udqa'U(and`rrnbh`sdrsghrsnmda`bjsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf
rxkk`akd'#(vhsgntschr`rrnbh`shmf`mxsnmdr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Sgd
qtkdhrsqhffdqdcnmkxaxbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqydqnsdmrd
`mcqd`khrlncdvhsgansghlodqedbshud`mcmnm,oqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr-Ntq
mdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(573) Zero Tense Irrealis Non-progressive Imperfective
Subject Marker Rule:
+
¶
V
+
+SM
/
+
Ø
¶
T
+
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
-real
-perf
-prog
L
331
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Ksnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgd
udqa'U(and`rrnbh`sdrsghrsnmdsnsgdudqaqnnsrxkk`akd'U(vhsgnts
chr`rrnbh`shmf`mxsnmdr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Sgdqtkdhrsqhffdqdc
nmkxaxbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqydqnsdmrd`mchqqd`khrlncd
vhsgansghlodqedbshud`mcmnm,oqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(574) Zero Tense Irrealis Progressive Imperfective Subject
Marker Rule:
+
#
+
¶
+SM
/
+
T
+
Ø
¶
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
-real
-perf
+prog
H
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Gsnmdrtaidbsl`qjdqhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgd
udqa'U(and`rrnbh`sdrsghrsnmda`bjsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf
rxkk`akd'#(vhsgntschr`rrnbh`shmf`mxsnmdr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcsgdqd-Sgd
qtkdhrsqhffdqdcnmkxaxbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenqydqnsdmrd
`mchqqd`khrlncdvhsgansghlodqedbshud`mcoqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr-Ntq
mdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
332
(575) Object Prefix Desyllabification Rule:
Ø
+NCP
# e(n-) #
# L
/
#
+ONP
+NR
+C3
+C8
+C9
+C10
Sghrqtkdcdkdsdrsgdrxkk`ahbrs`strne`mxmntmbk`rroqdehw'MBO(
vgdmhshlldch`sdkxoqdbdcdr`mxmntmqnns'MQ(vghbghr`mnaidbs`mc
eqnldhsgdqmntmbk`rr2+7+8nq0/'`kkvhsg`mnoshnm`k!d!unvdkhmsgd
oqdehw(-Sgd`rrnbh`shnmkhmdeqnlsgdcdkdsdcunvdksnsgdKsnmdhr
`tsnl`shb`kkxcdkdsdc`rvdkk`rsgdqdl`hmhmfm`r`kbnmrnm`mscndrmns
g`udrxkk`ahbrs`str-
Vd`qdmnvqd`cxsnenql`khydsgnrdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbg
mustadnqcdqdc`esdqsgdqdftk`qsnmdqtkdrg`udnodq`sdc-Sgdqd`qdnmkx
ehudqtkdrvghbgltrsadrnnqcdqdc-Vdrs`sdehqrssgdk`sdunvdk
`rrhlhk`shnmqtkd+`radknv9
333
(576) Vowel Assimilation Rule:
# CDC
D ¶
a(n-) +
[+verb]
+NCP
/
#
T
¶
T
+
+ONP
+NR
+C1
+C7
Sghrqtkdhrnmkxrs`sdchmhsrlnrsrodbhehbenqlhmnqcdqsng`mckdsgd
unvdk`mcsnmdbg`mfdroqdrdmsdchmsghrchrrdqs`shnm-Hshrghfgkx
oqna`akdsg`srgntkcnmdl`jd`mdwg`trshudrstcxneunvdk`rrhlhk`shnm
hmMfxdla——m+`mxvnqchmhsh`kunvdkvntkc`rrhlhk`sdsnsgdunvdk
pt`khsxnesgdehm`kunvdknesgdoqdbdchmfvnqc+oqna`akx`bbnlo`mhdc
axsgdsnmdbg`mfdrrgnvm`anud-
Sghrqtkdsgtrrs`sdrsg`svgdmdudqsgdunvdk!`!hrsgdmntmbk`rr
oqdehw'MBO(ne`mnaidbsmntmogq`rd'NMO(+hshrchr`rrnbh`sdceqnl
sgnrdsnmdr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcvhsghs+hshrlnudcsnsgddmcnesgd
hlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfvnqc+hshr`rrhlhk`sdcsnsgdunvdkpt`khsx'—(ne
sgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfrxkk`akd'B—B(`mcehm`kkx+sghrmdvunvdkhr
qd`rrnbh`sdcsnsgdehm`k`rrnbh`sdcsnmdnesg`sr`ldrxkk`akd-
Ntqmdwslnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdqdok`bdrsgdcdqhudcsnmdrnm
rodbhehbo`rshlodqedbshudbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbgrtbddcrhmmdtsq`khyhmfsgd
mnql`ksnm`kbnmsq`rsadsvddmG`mcKsnmdudqaqnnsrvghkdbnqqdbskx
eddchmfsgdk`sdcnvmrsdo`citrsldmsqtkd+`radknv9
334
'466(O2.O1Mnm,oqnfqdrrhudHlodqedbshudQtkd9
#
+
V
#
/
#
-[T
+
[T
H
#
+T
+past
[rem
[near
x
+verb
-perf
-prog
L
Sghrqtkdbg`mfdrsgdonk`qqd`khrsnmd',√S(sn`Gsnmd`mcsgdudqa
qnnssnmd'√S(sn`KsnmdhmO1nqO2bnmrsqtbshnmr'l`qjdcaxZ√qdl\
`mcZ√md`q\ed`stqdbnlahm`shnmr(vgdmdudqsgdx`qd`krnl`qjdcenq
hlodqedbshud`mcmnm,oqnfqdrrhud`rodbsr-
Vdb`mmnvdw`lhmdntqentqehm`klnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr+sgd
deedbsned`bgadhmfsnhmrdqsekn`shmfsnmdsnm`klnqogdldrvgdqdsgdx
vhkkbnqqdbskxsqhffdqsgdcnvmrsdoqtkdr'vghbg`qdsgdnmkxsnmdqtkdrsn
enkknvsgdrdk`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr(-Sgdehqrsnesgdrdqtkdrhrsgd
enkknvhmf9
(578) Zero Positive Perfective Object Marker Rule:
¶
+
/
¶ (T) +
+verb
-past
-fut
+perf
-neg
+OM
[[T]
-[T
335
Sghrqtkd`ccrnqbg`mfdrsgdnaidbsl`qjdqsnm`klnqogdldsn`onk`q
snmd',√S(vghbghrnoonrhsdsgdehqrs`rrnbh`sdcsnmd'√S(entmcnmhsr
qhfgs-Sgdqtkdhrnmkxsqhffdqdcaxbnmrsqtbshnmrvghbg`qdl`qjdcenq
ydqnsdmrd+odqedbshud`rodbs`mconrhshudonk`qhsx-Hs`kv`xreddcrsgdk`sd
cnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgenkknvr-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(579) Zero Irrealis Progressive Imperfective H Tone
Insertion and Docking Rule:
+
N
+
#
P
+
+SM
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
-real
-perf
+prog
+neg
+SM
+T
-past
-fut
+verb
-real
-perf
+prog
-neg
/
+
L
+
Ø
#
L
+
#
P
+
H
+
#
¶
/
+
T
¶
Ø
#
L
+
H
Sghrqtkd`ccr`Gsnmdsnm`klnqogdldhlldch`sdkxadenqdsgd
oqnfqdrrhudl`qjdq'O(hmbnmrsqtbshnmrl`qjdcenqydqnsdmrd+hqqd`khr
336
lncd+`mcoqnfqdrrhud`mchlodqedbshud`rodbsr-SghrGsnmdsnm`k
lnqogdldcndrmns`rrnbh`sdsn`mxrxkk`akdvgdmsgdoqdbdchmfrxkk`akd
hr`mdf`shudl`qjdq+atscndr`rrnbh`sdsnsgdhlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf
rxkk`akdvgdm`mdf`shudl`qjdqhrmnsoqdrdms+`rhmsgdrdbnmco`qsne
sgdoqdbdchmfqtkd-Ntqmdwsqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(580) Irrealis Polar Tone Insertion Rule:
#
+
V
+
¶
+
#
+
/
#
Ø
-[T
+ [T
+
Ø
-ਫT
+verb
-real
¶ (T) + ਫS*
Ø
Sghrqtkdhmrdqsrsvnekn`shmfonk`qsnmdrvgnrdsnmdpt`khsxhr
cdsdqlhmdcaxsgdhlldch`sdkxenkknvhmf`rrnbh`sdcsnmd-Sgtrsgdehqrs
onk`qsnmd',√S(hrhmrdqsdchlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmfsgdudqarsdl'U(`mc
hsrsnmdhrnoonrhsdsnsg`svghbghr`kqd`cx`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgdrsdl'√S(-
Sgdrdbnmconk`qsnmd',ਫS(hrhmrdqsdchlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfsgdudqa
rsdl`mchsrsnmdhrnoonrhsdsnsgdnmd'ਫS(vghbghr`rrnbh`sdcvhsgsgd
hlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfrxkk`akd'#(-He`ekn`shmfsnmdsnm`klnqogdld'S(
rgntkcnbbtqadsvddm`onk`qsnmd`mchsrenkknvhmf`rrnbh`sdcsnmd
cdsdqlhmdq+hshrcdkdsdcaxsghrqtkd-Sgddeedbsnesghrqtkdhrsneddcsgd
337
enkknvhmfcnvmrsdoqtkd`mcsgtralwaysg`ud`rtqe`bdcnvmrsdo
hlldch`sdkxoqdbdchmf`mchlldch`sdkxenkknvhmfsgdudqarsdlhm`mx
bnmrsqtbshnmvghbghrl`qjdcenqhqqd`khrlncd-Ntqehm`klnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkdhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(581) P1 and Realis Progressive Disassociation and
Polarization Rule:
+
#
+
+RP
/
(L)
H
(L)
L
+T
+past
-rem
+near
Ø -[T
Sghrqtkdqduhrdrsgdsnmdrenqntqqd`khroqnfqdrrhud`mcO0l`qjdqr
axbnmudqshmfsgdehm`kassociated L tonenesgdl`qjdqhmsn`
floating polar (-[T) tone`mcaxcdkdshmf`mxekn`shmfsnmdr
adenqdsghrmdvkxchr`rrnbh`sdcsnmd-Sghrqtkd`ookhdrnebntqrdnmkxsn
sgnrdrsqtbstqdrvgdqddhsgdqnesgdrdsvnl`qjdqrhrentmc-
Sghrbnmbktcdrntqchrbtrrhnmnesgdlnqognknfhb`k`mclnqogn,
snmnknfhb`kqtkdrmdbdrr`qxenqsgdc`s`oqdrdmsdc`mc`m`kxydchmsghr
chrrdqs`shnm-
338
CHAPTER 5
4-/-Bnmbktrhnm
Hmsghrchrrdqs`shnm+vdg`uddw`lhmdcsgdlnqognknfhb`k+snmnknfhb`k
'bnmchshnmdcaxotqdkxognmnknfhb`kbqhsdqh`(+`mclnqogn,snmnknfhb`k
'snm`kqtkdrbnmchshnmdcaxfq`ll`shb`kbqhsdqh`(qtkdr-Vdg`ud
enql`khydcd`bgqtkdmdbdrr`qxenqsgdc`s`oqdrdmsdc`mcg`udenbtrdcnm
sgdnqcdqhmfneqtkd`ookhb`shnm`rvdkk`rsgdhmsdq`bshnmadsvddmsgd
cheedqdmsjhmcrneqtkdr-Mns`akdhmsghrqdrodbsv`rsgdmddcsnonrhs`
edvlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbg`bst`kkxenkknvdcsgdl`hmancxne
snmdqtkdr-Sgdqdrtkshmfnqcdqhmfb`madrtll`qhydc`radknv9
(582) Rule Ordering
(underlying deep structure subject to grammatical
well-formedness conditions - see (68) above)
1. Morpheme spelling rules
2. Tone mapping rule
3. Early morpho-tonological rules
4. Tone rules
5. Late morpho-tonological rules
6. Downstep rules
(surface phonetic output)
339
Sgda`rhbenbtrnesghrchrrdqs`shnmg`raddmsncdsdqlhmdsgdmtladq
`mcbnlokdwhsxneqtkdrmdbdrr`qxsng`mckdsgdk`qfdrs`lntmsne
Mfxdla——mc`s`onrrhakd-Vdehqrscdudknodc`a`rhbrdsnesnmdqtkdr
a`rdcnmchrxkk`ahbmntmrhmhrnk`shnm`mchm`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rdr-
Sgdrda`rhbsnmdqtkdrvdqdenql`khydc`bbnqchmfsnbnmudmshnmr
cdudknodcenq`tsnrdfldms`kognmnknfxaxFnkcrlhsg'0865(-@m
hlonqs`ms`m`kxshb`k`cu`ms`fdv`rf`hmdcax`cnoshmfsgdhcd`ne`snm`k
lds`sgdrhrqtkdeqnlRsdv`qs'0870(`mcOtkkxak`mj'0871(-Sghrkdchm
stqmsnonrhshmf`cnvmrsdoqtkdvghbgcdodmcdcnmekn`shmf
'tm`rrnbh`sdc(snmdrneonk`qpt`khsx-
Nmbdvdg`ccdudknodc`a`rhbbnqdnesnm`kqtkdr`mcbnmudmshnmrnm
sgda`rhrnemntmogq`rdr+vd`ssdlosdcsndwo`mc`mcqduhrdsgdl`r
khsskd`ronrrhakd`rvddw`lhmdc`k`qfdancxnec`s`eqnlsgdhmchb`shud
lnnc-Sgntfg`qdehmdldmsr`mcqdrsqhbshnmrg`csnadonrhsdc+sgdl`hm
`cchshnmqdrtksdceqnlsgdmddcsnonrhsrdudq`klnqognknfhb`k`mc
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdrvghbg`ccdcsnmdrnqrkhfgskxqduhrdcsgdsnm`k
cdqhu`shnmhmnqcdqsn`ss`hmsgdbnqqdbsrtqe`bdognmdshbqd`khy`shnmr-
Mnsdvnqsgx`lnmfsgdrd`cchshnmrv`rsg`so`qsnesgd!Vdkk,enqldcmdrr
Bnmchshnm!onrhsdcaxFnkcrlhsg`mcqduhrdcaxBkdldmsr`mcEnqc+v`r
l`cdhmsn`mnql`kkdes,sn,qhfgssnmdqtkdhmntq`m`kxrhr-K`sdq+hmnqcdq
sncdqhudsgdmtldqntrcnvmrsdorenqhqqd`khrudqabnmrsqtbshnmr+vd
onrhsdc`k`sdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdvghbghmrdqsdconk`qekn`shmfsnmdr
340
itrshmshldsnsqhffdqntqcnvmrsdoqtkdr`ssgdqhfgsok`bd-Vd`krnvdms
nmsnonrhsrtaidbs`mcnaidbsl`qjdqsnm`klnqogdldrhmnqcdqsng`mckd
sgdsnmdbg`mfdrvghbgnbbtqadsvddmrtaidbs+udqa`mcnaidbs-
Sgdehm`kqdrtksne`kksghrv`rsg`svdonrhsdcnmkxrdudmsnmdqtkdrhm
`cchshnmsnsgdd`qkxsnmdl`oohmfqtkd`mcsgdk`sdcnvmrsdoqtkd+sn
`bghdudsgdcdrhqdcqdrtksr-Sgdrdqtkdr`qdsgdenkknvhmf9
(583) Normal Tonal Rules:
No. 1
: Final Downglide
No. 3’ : Metathesis
No. 4
: Rise-Formation
No. 5’ : Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
No. 6’ : Rise-Deletion
No. 7’ : Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
No. 8’ : Well-formedness Rule (WFR)
Sgdrdsnmdqtkdrvdqdenqltk`sdchmrtbg`v`xsg`ssgdx`qdmns
qhfhckxnqcdqdcvhsgqdrodbssnd`bgnsgdq-Hmrsd`c+vdonrhsdc`oqhmbhokd
neknb`knqcdqhmfvgdqd`mxqtkdhrodqlhssdcsnnodq`sd`rhsrrsqtbstq`k
bnmchshnmr`qdlds`rnmdoqnbddcr`knmfsgdsnm`kshdqeqnlkdessnqhfgs-
341
Sghrfdmdq`koqhmbhokdneknb`kqtkdnqcdqhmf`kv`xrf`udtrsgdcdrhqdc
qdrtkshmd`bgrodbhehbcdqhu`shnm-
Sgdcnvmrsdoqtkdvdonrhsdcknvdqrsgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqnmdmnsbgenq
d`bgekn`shmfonk`qsnmdsg`shlldch`sdkxoqdbddcr`m`rrnbh`sdcsnmdne
noonrhsdbg`q`bsdq-Sgdonrhshmfne`ekn`shmfKsnmdadenqd`m`rrnbh`sdc
Gsnmdg`rknmfaddmqdf`qcdcaxkhmfthrsr`rsgdtmcdqkxhmfdwok`m`shnm
enqsgdnbbtqqdmbdnecnvmrsdoodcGsnmdr-Sgdcdqhu`shnmne
cnvmrsdoodcKsnmdr+gnvdudq+hrltbglnqdoqnakdl`shbctdsnsgd
dwsqdldkxrl`kkmtladqnek`mft`fdrvghbgdwghahssghrogdmnldmnm-
VghkdOtkkxak`mj'087293(g`ronrhsdcsg`scnvmrsdoodcKsnmdrbnld
nmkxeqnlfloating L tonesadenqd`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdr+vdg`ud
onrhsdcsg`scnvmrsdoodcKsnmdrbnldeqnlfloating H tonesadenqd
`rrnbh`sdcKsnmdr-Sghroqnonr`krddlrltbglnqdhmjddohmfvhsgntq
mntmogq`rdsnmdodqstqa`shnmr`mcg`raddmdpt`kkxdwok`m`snqxhmntq
dw`lhm`shnmneudqaogq`rdogdmnldm`-
@rhm`kkk`mft`fdrvghbgg`udognmnknfhb`kcnvmrsdo+cnvmrsdorhm
Mfxdla——mvdqdentmcsnadansgbtltk`shud`mcodqrdudq`shud-Sghr
qdedqrsnsgdrtbbdrrhudknvdqhmfnesgdsnm`kqdfhrsdqvhsghmsgdsnm`k
ogq`rd`mcsnsgdl`hms`hmhmfnesgdknvdqdcqdfhrsdqtmshksgdrod`jdq
qd`bgdr`o`trd-Sgdqdrtkshrsg`shshrpthsdrhlokdsnbnmrsqtbs`ogq`rd
vgdqdsgdGsnmd`ssgddmchrqd`khydcognmdshb`kkxnm`lowerohsbgsg`m
`Ksnmd`ssgdadfhmmhmf-Vghkdsghrbg`q`bsdqhrshbhrmnsnesdmentmc+hs
342
rddlrdrodbh`kkx`ooqnoqh`sdhmk`mft`fdrkhjdMfxdla——mvgdqd
ognmnknfhb`kcnvmrsdonbbtqrhmsgd`ardmbdneognmdshbcnvmcqhes-
Dwsdmchmfsgdc`s`eqnlsgdmnql`k`rrnbh`shudmntmogq`rdl`sdqh`k
trt`kkx`m`kxydchmFq`rrehdkcrA`mstk`mft`fdrsnhmbktcd`k`qfdonqshnm
nehmchb`shudlnncbnmrsqtbshnmrg`rmdbdrrhs`sdcedvbg`mfdrsnntq
a`rhbsnmdqtkdratsg`rmdbdrrhs`sdcsgdenql`shnmne`mtladqne
lnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr-Rhmbdl`mxnesgdrdlnqogn,snmnknfhb`kqtkdr
onrhssg`su`qhntrfq`ll`shb`ked`stqdr`qdqd`khydc`rsnm`klnqogdldr+
rhlhk`qdw`lhm`shnmrnesgdrdogdmnldm`hmnsgdqqdk`sdck`mft`fdrbntkc
dudmst`kkxkd`csnsgdqdbnmrsqtbshnmneu`qhntrfq`ll`shb`klnqogdldr
`knmfvhsgsgdqdk`sdcghrsnqhb`koqnbdrrdrvghbgqdrtksdchmsnc`x&rq`sgdq
no`ptdsnm`ko`q`chflr-
343
REFERENCES
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Anderson, Stephen C. 1978. ms. "Mapping and Tone Rules in
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Angeles.
Anderson, Stephen C. 1979. "Verb Structure" in Larry M. Hyman
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Grassfields Bantu Borderland, Southern California Occasional
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Anderson, Stephen C. 1980b. Lexique Franclais-NgyembDDn, SocieJteJ
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Anderson, Stephen C. 1981. "An Autosegmental Account of BamilekeDschang Tonology," in Journal of Linguistic Research, Volume
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Anderson, Stephen C. 1982. "From Semivowels to Aspiration to Long
Consonants in NgyembDDn-Bamileke," in Journal of West African
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Clements, George N. 1979. "The Description of Terraced-Level Tone
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536-558.
Clements, George and Ford, Kevin. 1979. "Kikuyu Tone Shift and
its Synchronic Consequences," in Linguistic Inquiry, Volume
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Comrie, Bernard. 1976. Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of
Verbal Aspect and Related Problems, Cambridge University
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Fiore, Lynne E. 1977. ms. "A Phonology of Limbum (Nsungli),"
S.I.L., Yaounde, Cameroon.
344
Gilligan, Gary. 1982. ms. "Autosegmental Babanki," U.S.C., Los
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Goldsmith, John. 1976. Autosegmental Phonology, Ph.D.
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Hombert, Jean-Marie. 1974. "Universals of Downdrift: Their
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African Languages, Volume 10, Part 2, Hartford, England, pp.
29-43.
Hyman, Larry M. 1972. "A Phonological Study of Fe&fe&-Bamileke,"
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Hyman, Larry M. 1979. "Tonology of the Babanki Noun," in Studies
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Hyman, Larry M. 1980. "Relative Time Reference in the Bamileke
Tense System," in Studies in African Linguistics, Volume 11,
Number 1, Los Angeles, U.C.L.A., pp. 227-237.
Hyman, Larry M. 1982a. ms. "Dschang Tonology," U.S.C., Los
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Hyman, Larry M. 1982b. ms. "Globality and the Accentual Analysis
of Luganda Tone," U.S.C., Los Angeles.
Hyman, Larry M. and Schuh, Russel G. 1974. "Universals in Tone
Rules: Evidence from West Africa" in Linguistic Inquiry,
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Hyman, Larry M. and Tadadjeu, Maurice. 1976. "Floating Tones in
Mbam-Nkam," in Southern California Occasional Papers in
Linguistics, Volume 3, Los Angeles, U.S.C., pp. 57-111.
Leben, William R. 1978. "The Representation of Tone," in Victoria
Fromkin (Ed.), Tone: A Linguistic Survey, Academic Press, New
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345
Ngangoum, F.B. 1970. Le Bamileke des Fefe: Grammaire
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Langues Africaines et Linguistique, Cahier du Departement
Numero 6, UniversiteJ de YaoundeJ, YaoundeJ, Cameroon.
Pullyblank, Douglas. 1982. ms. "Downstep," to appear in
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Schuh, Russel G. 1978. "Tone Rules," in Victoria Fromkin (Ed.),
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Stallcup, Kenneth. 1980. "La GeJographie Linguistique des
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Stewart, John M. 1981. "Key Lowering (Downstep/Downglide) in
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Journal of African Languages, Volume 10, Part 2, Hartford,
England, pp. 44-53.
Watters, John Robert. 1979. ms. "Downstep in a Constrained
Phonological Theory," U.C.L.A., Los Angeles.
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of California Press, Los Angeles.
346
APPENDIX A
Sghr`oodmchwfhudr`khrsnesgdehm`ksnmdqtkdrhmsgdhqqdrodbshud
fqntor`mcsgdmqdrs`sdrd`bgnesgdrdqtkdrhmhsr`tsnrdfldms`k
enql`khrl-Ehqrs+sgdkhrsnentqehm`kqtkdrhrsgdenkknvhmf9
(584)
Rule Ordering
(see (416) above)
(Morpheme Spelling Rules)
Left-to-Right Mapping Rule (universal)
(Early Morpho-tonological Rules)
Rule 1
:
Final Downglide
Rule 3’ :
Metathesis
Rule 4
Rise-Formation
:
Rule 5’ :
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes
Rule 6’ :
Rise-Deletion
Rule 7’ :
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes
Rule 8’ :
Well-formedness Rule (WFR)
(Late Morpho-tonological Rules)
Rule 2’:
Downstep
347
Mnvsg`svdg`udrddmsgdkhrsnesgdu`qhntrsnmdqtkdr`mcsgdhq
nqcdqne`ookhb`shnm+vdvhkkfhudd`bgqtkdhmhsrenql`k`tsnrdfldms`k
enql`shmmtldqhb`knqcdq+`radknv9
(585) Rule 1:
(see (417) above)
Final Downglide
#
L Ø Ø
//
/
H L
(586) Rule 2’:
Downstep (see (428) above)
#
+B pitch
(-[T)B
(587) Rule 3’:
[T
Metathesis
(see (424) above)
##
L (H)
348
H
L
(588) Rule 4:
(see (420) above)
Rise-Formation
##
#
(589) Rule 5’:
L
H
#
Leftward-docking L-tone Morphemes (see
(430) above)
#
+
T
+
+
L
+
Condition: This rule shall not operate if it would
associate the floating L tone across a phrase
boundary to a syllable already associated
with an immediately preceding H tone.
(590) Rule 6’:
(see (426) above)
Rise-Deletion
##
L (T) H
/
L
Ø
349
(591) Rule 7’:
Rightward-docking H-tone Morphemes (see
(423) above)
+
+
H
+
#
+
T
Condition: Association line deleted only if boundary
between H and T tones is weaker than a
phrase boundary (¶).
(592) Rule 8’: Well-formedness Rule (WFR) (see (427) above)
(#) +
(T)
T
+
#
+
+
Condition: When a toneless syllable associates to the
first tone on its left, it only disassociates
that tone from another syllable if that syllable
is already associated to yet another tone.
350
APPENDIX B
Sghr`oodmchwvhkketqsgdqrodbhexsgdl`hmbg`qs'rdd71+056`mc320
`anud(vghbgg`raddmtrdcsnrtll`qhyd`kksgdsnmdbg`mfdrnmsgdudqa
qnns-Adenqdqdu`lohmfsghrbg`qs+hshrrgnvm`f`hmadknv9
(593)
Revised Realis/Irrealis Tone Distribution
(see (167) above)
Features
P4
P3
x/R
-perf
+real
-prog
-perf
+real
+prog
+perf
+real
P2
P1
Ø
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/R
x/x
x/x
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
R/R
x/R
+perf
-real
F1
F2
F3
F4
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
-perf
-real
-prog
x/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
-perf
-real
+prog
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
I/I
Hmnqcdqsnrodbhexsgd`bst`krtqe`bdsnmdrenqd`bgG`mcKsnmdudqa
qnnsenqd`bgnesgdrxlankrhmsgdoqdbdchmfbg`qs+vdvhkkg`udsnchuhcd
351
sgdbg`qshmsnsvnbg`qsr+nmdenqonrhshudbnmrsqtbshnmr`mc`rdbnmcenq
mdf`shud-Sgtrhmsgdenkknvhmfsvnbg`qsr+sgdrxlankoqdbdchmfsgdrk`rg
l`qjhmchb`sdrsgdrtqe`bdsnmdne`mtmcdqkxhmfGsnmdudqaqnnsvghkd
sgdrxlankenkknvhmfsgdrk`rgl`qjhmchb`sdrsgdrtqe`bdsnmdne`m
tmcdqkxhmfKsnmdudqaqnns-Ntqehqrsbg`qsqdedqrsnonrhshud
bnmrsqtbshnmr+`radknv9
(594)
Features
+perf
+real
-perf
+real
-prog
-perf
+real
+prog
Surface Verb Root Tones, Positive Constructions
P4
P3
P2
P1
Ø
F1
F2
F3
F4
∫H/dL HL/dHL L/LdL dH/dL LH/LH
dH/dL dL/dL dL/dL
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
dH/dL
+perf
-real
dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL
-perf
-real
-prog
dL/L
-perf
-real
+prog
dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL
352
dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL
Sgdoqdbdchmfbg`qsrgnvdcsgdrtqe`bdudqasnmdrenq`kksgdonrhshud
bnmrsqtbshnmr-Sgdenkknvhmfbg`qsrgnvrsgdrtqe`bdudqasnmdrenq`kk
sgdhqqdrodbshudmdf`shudbntmsdqo`qsr9
(595)
Features
Surface Verb Root Tones, Negative Constructions
P4
P3
P2
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
-perf
+real
-prog
H/dH dL/dL dL/dL
H/dH
H/dH
-perf
+real
+prog
H/dH
H/dH
H/dH
+perf
+real
+perf
-real
H/dH
H/dH
P1
Ø
F1
F2
F3
F4
dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL
-perf
-real
-prog
dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL
-perf
-real
+prog
dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL dH/dL
353