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Texto 1
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN LITERATURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY
It is difficult to introduce a collection on “Literature and Photography” without reference to nineteenth-century
realism. The historical coincidence of the development of photography and the rise of literary realism in the
nineteenth century has produced a rich tradition of scholarship dedicated to probing the intersections between
these two modes of representation. Armstrong’s account of this relationship highlights the extent to which both
photography and literary realism in the nineteenth century were constructions of the real, mutually
substantiating enterprises that developed in response to a public “hungry for certain kinds of visual
information”. This visual turn is, as Geoffrey Batchen argues, itself part of a longer history of the “desire to
photograph”—a desire that predates photography. Yet photography specifically, writes Jennifer Green- Lewis,
“provided a locus of debate for issues having to do with realism, especially literary realism … What realism
ought to do and what it was actually capable of were topics for which photography was able to provide
confirmation”. At the same time, photography and realism both trouble the seeming stability of the “real” in
numerous ways, as critics have been quick to point out in recent years. Rather than understanding either
photographic or literary realism as unmediated “truth,” Daniel Novak argues that manipulation was not seen as
“anomalous or incidental to the project of realism but as absolutely essential to it”. Green-Lewis suggests that
rather than simply evoking realism, photography shares a relationship to literary romance as well.
The discussion of realism is only one part of the developing story of photography and literature. In her study of
Victorian Photography and Literary Nostalgia, for instance, Helen Groth describes the way nineteenth century
photography was also used to support a view of poetry as an “ideal of tradition, a repository of cultural memory,
a time-keeping device, and as a means of deferral and deceleration in the midst of the flux and chaos of modern
life”. Even within the nineteenth century, photography’s relationship to literature was not limited to the
nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, modernism’s imperative to “make it new” alters not only
photography and literature in isolation, but also the relationship between the two. Walter Benjamin’s influential
treatment of the work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction brings a distinctly political valence to the
discussion of photography. The critical discussion of literature and photography now pulls in several different
directions, many of which implicitly or explicitly question the centrality of the real to both forms of
representation.
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Central to many critiques of photography and realism are Roland Barthes’s and Susan Sontag’s respective
philosophical meditations on photography. These works and the works they have inspired have taken us from
the terrain of mimesis to a rich and diverse conversation about the way we write the visual, the way we envision
the literary, and the processes of memory. The experience of photography, writes Barthes, is an intensely
subjective and physical experience. Photography “is an uncertain art,” an individual experience freighted with
desire. Sontag recognizes photography’s evidentiary, documentary aims—the fact that “Photographs are valued
because they give information”—but suggests that “It is not reality that photographs make immediately
accessible, but images”.
Fonte: Adaptado de Susan E. Cook. New Developments in Literature and Photography, in Literature Interpretation Theory. London: Routledge,
2013.
RESPONDA ÀS QUESTÕES CONFORME INFORMAÇÕES CONTIDAS NO TEXTO.
QUESTÃO 1
Segundo o autor, por que é difícil falar sobre a relação entre literatura e fotografia sem se referir ao
realismo do século XIX?
Com o crescimento do realismo literário e o desenvolvimento da fotografia no século XIX, formou-se uma
farta tradição de estudos direcionados a investigar as interseções entre esses dois modos de representação.
Como ambas se tratavam de construções do real, também atendiam aos anseios do público da época, que
desejava ter acesso a certos tipos de informações visuais.
QUESTÃO 2
As palavras “itself” e “which”, em negrito no primeiro parágrafo, referem-se, respectivamente, a
(A) “desire to photograph” e “realism”.
(B) “history” e “photography”.
(C) “response to a public” e “information”.
(D) “visual turn” e “topics”.
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QUESTÃO 3
Daniel Novak crê que o realismo fotográfico/literário
(A) aceita a estabilidade do real.
(B) envolve manipulação, necessariamente.
(C) é foco de estudo da crítica contemporânea.
(D) se constitui de verdade absoluta.
QUESTÃO 4
De que maneira a chegada do modernismo movimenta o debate sobre literatura e fotografia?
A chegada do modernismo não afeta a fotografia e a literatura de maneira isolada somente, mas também a
relação entre elas. Os estudos críticos sobre literatura e fotografia passam a seguir direções diversas, muitas
das quais questionavam o papel do real, consolidado durante o século XIX, nessas formas de representação.
QUESTÃO 5
Analise as seguintes afirmações:
I. Segundo Geoffrey Batchen, o desejo de fotografar surge com a consolidação da fotografia como arte.
II. O trabalho de Helen Groth se restringe ao papel do realismo na relação entre literatura e fotografia.
III. As obras de Roland Barthes e de Susan Sontag vão além da importância da mimese na fotografia.
São verdadeiras:
(A) apenas I.
(B) apenas II.
(C) apenas III.
(D) II e III.
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Texto 2
A LINGUISTIC MODEL OF ART HISTORY
Language and art may both operate as discrete combinatorial systems governed by a set of principles which
allow permissible combinations of linguistic and artistic primitives. Sounds are used to build words, which are
used to build phrases, which are used to build sentences. In the same way, brush strokes are used to build lines,
which are used to enclose spaces, which are used to build forms, which are combined to construct paintings. In
the study of language, one inquires as to the rules that build nested structures from phoneme to sentence. In the
study of art, the inquiry should be to discover similar combinatorial rules that build artistic structures from
brush stroke to completed painting. In this way, art, like language, seems to involve a system of principles or
rules, something like a 'visual grammar', for not every combination of forms, lines, and space is possible in
every style. If we can ask what a native speaker must know to speak English, it seems reasonable to ask what an
artist must know to paint Cubism. And if knowing how to speak English means knowing the rules of
English grammar, it seems reasonable to assert that knowing how to paint Cubism involves knowing a
grammar of Cubism. Just as a native speaker of English is not free to combine nouns and verbs in any
particular order, it is also the case that a Cubist painter isn't free to combine picture planes and bounded
spaces in any particular order. We presently understand that German, Swahili, French, and Navaho all
have syntactic rules, and Cubism, Impressionism, Dadaism, and Mannerism have similar stylistic rules.
And as no one speaks 'language', no one paints 'art'; people speak English, Navaho, or Japanese, and
people paint as Cubists, Impressionists, or Abstract Expressionists. Native speakers are also free to create
sentences of limitless length and artists are similarly free (in principle) to create paintings of limitless size using
perhaps the same kind of recursive rule. With a generative grammar, then, native speakers can create a limitless
number of new, unique, and never-spoken before sentences in any language, and artists with something like a
'generative art grammar' are able to paint a limitless number of new, unique, and never-seen-before paintings in
any style. Most importantly, then, art, like language, appears to have an essentially generative quality; we can
produce an infinite number of new and different paintings within any style given a range of art materials and
historically available subject matter. As such, the normal use of art involves creativity and innovation, such that
it seems a reasonable requirement for any theory of artistic behavior that it be able to explain this free and
creative capacity.
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If we assume such similarities between linguistic and artistic behavior, do the shortcomings of historical
linguistics that led to the advent of generative grammar also lead to proposing a generative grammar for art?
The key issue that arose for static descriptive linguistics also arises for the study of art: how do we account for
art's essentially creative and at the same time rule governed nature? As with descriptive linguistics, the
classificatory method appears ill equipped to answer this question, for sorting existing artistic forms says little
about what is involved in producing such visual structures in the first place. Chomsky argued the study of
language should be shifted from studying the corpus of already produced linguistic output (the categories of
descriptive linguistics) to studying the tacit knowledge or mental competence needed to produce such linguistic
structures. He (Chomsky, 1986) referred to descriptive linguistics as the study of external or E-Language, and
he contrasted it to the study of the tacit knowledge possessed by native speakers - their internal or I-Language.
Language, then, was not so much a property of the patterns of linguistic output but of the mind's knowledge.
The presence of such prior-to-experience-knowledge, however, runs counter to received sociological theory
concerning the interface of mind and society (Durkheim, 1950). With its tabula rasa assumption, sociology
argues that any discovered mental rules or principles are imported from external experience through some form
of socialization or internalization. But in the case of the mind's knowledge of art styles, mental rules or
principles seem to be attained in spite of inadequacies in artistic socialization.
Fonte: Adaptado de Albert J. Bergesen. A linguistic model of art history. Disponível em:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304422X00000127# (acesso em: 19/08/2015)
RESPONDA ÀS QUESTÕES CONFORME INFORMAÇÕES CONTIDAS NO TEXTO.
QUESTÃO 6
Mencione 2 semelhanças entre a arte e a linguagem descritas pelo autor no primeiro parágrafo.
- ambas apresentam uma gramática própria – um sistema de princípios e regras;
- utilizando os recursos da linguagem e da arte, tanto o falante quanto o artista podem criar um número
infinito de sentenças e de obras de arte, respectivamente.
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QUESTÃO 7
No trecho em negrito no primeiro parágrafo, o autor
(A) compara as limitações do falante às do artista.
(B) considera a arte livre de preceitos formais.
(C) julga impossível aprender várias línguas estrangeiras.
(D) questiona a importância das regras gramaticais.
QUESTÃO 8
Segundo o autor, exigir de uma teoria sobre o comportamento artístico que ela seja capaz de dar conta da
capacidade livre e criativa da arte é
(A) essencial.
(B) limitante.
(C) normal.
(D) razoável.
QUESTÃO 9
Por que o método classificatório é considerado insuficiente para o estudo da arte e da linguagem?
Esse método não consegue dar conta da natureza criativa e simultaneamente controlada por regras que se
pode constatar no uso da linguagem e no processo de criação de obras de arte.
QUESTÃO 10
A teoria sociológica apresentada por Durkheim
(A) contradiz o proposto por Chomsky.
(B) enfatiza o papel da competência mental.
(C) não se aplica a questões linguísticas.
(D) rejeita o conceito de tabula rasa.
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