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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
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Brazilian plants with possible action on the central nervous system—A study
of historical sources from the 16th to 19th century
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Melina Giorgetti, Giuseppina Negri, Eliana Rodrigues ∗
CEBRID, Department of Psychobiology at UNIFESP, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Received 21 April 2006; received in revised form 8 August 2006; accepted 8 August 2006
Available online 12 August 2006
Abstract
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on
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Brazil is a country rich in biodiversity, endemism, and cultural diversity, inhabited by different types of population. European expeditions and the
migratory processes that began in the 16th century greatly contributed both to cultural diversity and to Brazilian popular therapeutics, and produced
the first records on medicinal plants in Brazil. This study comprises a bibliographical survey of historic books found in Sao Paulo libraries (16th
through 19th centuries) on medicinal plants exerting effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Thirty-four plants native to Brazil were selected
from the reading of the books. Of these 34 plants, 13 were also recorded in ethnopharmacological studies among modern Brazilian communities
and 16 have been studied phytochemically. Only eight have been the object of pharmacological studies, six of these, recently, with a request for a
patent. Results showed that most of the species recorded in this study have been reported as medicinal for centuries, but have never been the object
of pharmacological investigation down to the present time. Such results provide ideas for a selection of these species as potentially bioactive to be
included in future pharmacological studies.
© 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Keywords: Medicinal plants; Central nervous system; Ethnopharmacology; Historic literature; Popular knowledge; Ethnobotany
1. Introduction
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Brazil is a country rich in diversity and endemism, with a territory that includes five main biomas: the Amazon rain forest, the
Cerrado brushlands, the Mata Atlântica rain forest, the Pantanal
wetlands, and the Caatinga semi-arid desert. Brazil is also rich
in cultural diversity and is inhabited by several types of traditional communities and ethnic groups such as Indigenous ethnic
groups, Quilombola communities, and other traditional populations (Caboclo/river dwellers, Caiçara fishermen, the Jangadeiro
raftsmen, babaçu gatherers, and rubber tappers), the latter being
the result of miscegenation between native Indian, European,
and African elements. Descendants of Europeans and Asians settled in Brazil during colonization and migratory processes begun
at the start of the 16th century. This miscegenation enhanced the
culture and rituals of some Brazilian communities and ethnic
groups, enriching them from the ethnobotanical point of view.
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Psychobiology, UNIFESP, R. Botucatu, 862 Ed. Ciências Biomedicas (1◦ Andar), CEP 04023-062 Sao Paulo,
Brazil. Tel.: +55 11 21490155; fax: +55 11 50842793.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Rodrigues).
0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.08.003
Little was known about Brazil at the time of the discoveries.
The first Jesuits, scientists, explorers, and settlers to arrive in
Brazil (such as Padre Anchieta, Guilherme Piso and Von Martius) reported on all the characteristics they could observe (Kury,
2001); these writings are today regarded as the first ethnobotanical records on Brazilian medicinal plants and their uses by
different populations.
In time, this knowledge took different paths—in part passed
on from one person to another as people moved on (migration,
journeys, etc.) to be later re-transmitted, diffused and broadly utilized by several populations in all parts of the country. However,
another part of the knowledge was not passed on: its use became
less and less frequent over the course of time and, not having
been awarded the attention it deserved by the population and
scientific community, was wholly forgotten. Only a few written
records survived in books from the past centuries. Some studies
outside Brazil have focused at the history of plant use from an
ethnopharmacological perspective (Fabre, 2003; Heinrich and
Teoh, 2004; Kufer et al., 2005; Heinrich et al., 2006).
The main objective of this study is, from a bibliographical survey of historic Brazilian literature, to recover therapeutic uses
of plants native to Brazil, going back over centuries, and, con-
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
comitantly, to search for phytochemical and pharmacological
investigations. The data obtained in this study may serve as a
basis to select the species to be investigated in future pharmacological and phytochemical studies.
Therefore, the aim of the present study matches the recent
concept for ethnopharmacology, which is an “Interdisciplinary
study of the physiological actions of plant, animal and other
substances used in indigenous medicines of past and present
cultures” (International Society of Ethnopharmacology, 2005).
co
3. Results
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sulted (http://www.anvisa.gov.br/ July 2005). DEF (Dicionário
de Especialidades Farmaceuticas 2004/2005), an up-to-date listing of medication legally approved in Brazil was also consulted.
Finally, a survey verified the existence of any patent related
to the species recorded in the present study. Sites for registry of
patents in Brazil, the United States, and Europe, were consulted,
namely, the Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial—INPI
(http://www.inpi.gov.br), the United States Patent Office—
USPTO (http://www.uspto.gov) and the European Patent
Office—ESPACENET, 2005 (http://www.ep.espacenet.com).
This survey was conducted during August 2005.
2. Methodology
on
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Only a few books were found on the subject of medicinal
plants in the institutions researched, written in former centuries
and in good enough condition for reading. Books in a poor state
of conservation were not included in this study, due to difficulties
in interpreting data. The books on medicinal plants of greatest
relevance belonged to private collections or museum libraries.
All books utilized in this research are new editions, published
in the 20th century, of original books.
The six books selected were from the 16th century (one book),
the 17th century (one), the 18th century (one), and the 19th
century (three):
• Book 1: Notı́cia do Brasil (1587). Sousa, G.S. Brasiliensia
Documenta. Volume VII. Sao Paulo, 1974.
• Book 2: “Zoobiblion” (Livro de Animais do Brasil (1654).
Wagener, Z. Brasiliensia Documenta. Volume IV. Sao Paulo,
1964.
• Book 3: Plantas Fluminenses Descritas por Frei Veloso
(1741–1811). Veloso, J.M.C. Separata de Anais da Biblioteca
Nacional Volume 96. Rio de Janeiro, 1976.
• Book 4: Plantas Medicinais do Brasil (1801–1812). Gomes,
B.A. Brasiliensia Documenta. Volume V. Sao Paulo, 1972.
• Book 5: Viagem pelo Brasil (1817–1820). Spix and Martius.
Volume III. Editora Melhoramentos. Sao Paulo, 1976.
• Book 6: Natureza, Doenças, Medicina e Remédios dos Índios
Brasileiros (1844). Martius. Companhia Editorial Nacional.
Sao Paulo, 1939.
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The investigation focused on historic books on popular use
of medicinal plants found in Sao Paulo institutions. Included
were: the University of Sao Paulo libraries, the Botanical Institute of the State of Sao Paulo, the Padre Anchieta Museum,
and private collections owned by researchers José Ribeiro do
Valle and Elisaldo Luı́s de Araújo Carlini, with over 40 years
of their academic life devoted to the study of medicinal plants.
The search yielded six books of great interest to the project,
published between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Reports on
plant species with therapeutic uses that might affect the central
nervous system (CNS) were obtained by reading the books. This
article focuses on the CNS, based on the fact that 450 million
people in all of the world experience mental, neurological, or
behavioral problems at some time (WHO, 2006).
The geographical origin of the species selected was verified using the six-volume Pio Corrêa (1926); books by Lorenzi
(1992, 1998, 2003), Lorenzi and Matos (2002), Missouri
Botanical Garden Website (2006) and specific flora found in
large herbaria.
Bibliographical surveys concerning ethnopharmacological
studies were made to verify if species recorded in the present
study have uses in modern Brazilian communities. It was
searched in Pubmed and in UNIFESP collection. This research
was carried out in June 2006.
Efforts were made to identify modern pharmacological studies that might partially validate some of the possible effects
related to uses encountered in the historical sources. Bibliographical surveys were carried out in Pubmed (August 2005)
and in all of the Annals of the Brazilian Symposium of Medicinal Plants (from 1968 until 2004), one of the most relevant
sources for Brazil. In 2006 (May), a survey was also conducted
in Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Database.
The bibliographical research on all of the chemical classes
found in the plants selected was carried out in the Web of Science
(July 2006) utilizing the scientific name of each plant. Results of
the survey were evaluated to certify that the article contained the
chemical constituents analyzed in order to discard false results.
Information was classified in “phytochemical classes” present
in each plant: the chemical constituent was not mentioned so
that comparisons and results might be visualized more clearly.
Every attempt was made, also, to verify whether the species
identified in this study are available on the market in Brazil
as pharmaceutical products. ANVISA (National Agêncy for
Sanitary Vigilance) – a regulatory agency for Brazilian medication with a complete list of these products – was con-
339
The books were read and 93 plants with effect or uses possibly related to the CNS recorded as reported by the respective
authors. Uses most cited were: to combat fever (febrifuges—
20.4%), against pain (analgesic—20.4%) and those that alter
consciousness (that produce “drunkenness”, that produce
“numbness”—16.1%).
Bignonia chica Humb. and Bonpl. used as blood depurative
was also included. Even though this category of use has no direct
relationship with the CNS, it might well be related to a reduction in viscosity of the blood thereby improving memory, as for
example in case of Ginkgo biloba L. (Santos et al., 2003).
Plants not identified up to the species level in the books were
not included in the study. This decision was based on the fact
that the attempt to establish a correlation between the plants
cited only by their vernacular names or by genus and possible
340
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
Table 1
Thirty-four species native to Brazil cited in historic literature with possible uses/effects on the central nervous system
Vernacular name
Indications in historic literature [part utilized]
Indications by Brazilian communities
nowadays
Anacardium occidentale L.
(Anacardiaceae)
Cajú (cashew)
“Intoxicating, inebriating” [fruit] (Martius, 1939)
Aristolochia grandiflora Sw
(Aristolochiaceae)
Bertholletia excelsa Bompl.
(Lecythidaceae)
Mil-homens
“Febrifuge” [stem] (Gomes, 1972)
Hemorrhoids, serious diarrhea
[bark]—coastal Caiçara fishermen
(Di Stasi and Hiruma-Lima, 2002);
lower extremity pain, skin injury
[bark]—Pataxó Indians (Thomas,
2001); to treat inflammations [bark]
(Albuquerque and Andrade, 2002);
inflammation—Xucuru Indians
(Silva and Andrade, 1998)
No data
Castanhero-do-pará
(brazil-nut-tree)
“Smoke” [bark] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
Bignonia chica Humb. and
Bonpl. (Bignoniaceae)
Carajuru
“Blood purifier” [leaf] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
Cecropia palmata Willd.
(Cecropiaceae)
Couratari guianensis Aubl.
(Lecythidaceae)
Cryptocarya pretiosa Mart.
ex Nees (Lauraceae)
Dorstenia brasiliensis Lam.
(Moraceae)a
Echites cururu Mart.
(Apocynaceae)
Echites grandiflorus G. Mey.
(Apocynaceae)
Erythroxylon coca Lam.
(Erythroxylaceae)a
No record
“Becalms the need for food and sleep” [leaf] (Spix
and Martius, 1976)
“Cigarette” [bark] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
Contraherva
Cipó-cururu
Cipó-cururu
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No data
No data
To treat snake bites, fever and others
infections (Lorenzi and Matos, 2002)
No data
No data
Mandioca (manioc)
“Intoxicates, inebriating” [root] (Martius, 1939)
Banana
“Intoxicates, inebriating” [fruit] (Martius, 1939)
No data
“Same use as Nicotiana tabacum and N. rustica
(narcotic)” [whole plant] (Martius, 1939)
“Combats rheumatic pain” [seed] (Spix and Martius,
1976)
“Combats rheumatic pain” [seed] (Spix and Martius,
1976)
No data
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Paullinia cururu L.
(Sapindaceae)
Anemia [fruit]—Amazonian
river-dwellers (Amorozo and Gély,
1988); gastrointestinal disturbances,
fever, body strengtheners [bark and
fruit]—Amazonian river-dwellers
(Rodrigues, 2006); to treat dysentery,
colic, liver [bark and
fruit]—Amazonian rubber tappers
(Ming, 1995)
Gastrointestinal disturbances, body
strengtheners [leaf]—Amazonian
river-dwellers (Rodrigues, 2006);
conjunctivitis [leaf]—Amazonian
inhabitants (Estrella, 1995)
No data
Stimulant and narcotic—Amazonian
Indians (Plowman, 1979; Cooper,
1987), to treat heart
disorders—Amazonian Inhabitants
(Van den Berg and Silva, 1988)
Ray sting [latex]—Amazonian
river-dwellers (Amorozo, 1993);
ichthyotoxic (Heizer, 1987; Schultes
and Raffaulf, 1990)
No data
Assacú
Manihot utilissima Pohl
(Euphorbiaceae)
Musa sapientum L.
(Musaceae)
Nicotiana langsdorffii
Weinmann (Solanaceae)
Ocotea cujumary Mart.
(Lauraceae)
Ocotea opifera Mart.
(Lauraceae)
“Counteracts fever, headache, and loss of appetite”
[stem] (Spix and Martius, 1976; Martius, 1939)
“Counteracts fever, headache, and loss of appetite”
[stem] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
“Inebriates” [leaf] (Spix and Martius, 1976; Martius,
1939)
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Ipadú
“To counteract weakness in the nerves” [bark] (Spix
and Martius, 1976)
“Febrifuge” [root and leaf] (Gomes, 1972)
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Hura crepitans L.
(Euphorbiaceae)
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Species (family)
Nicotina (nicotine)
Cujumari
No record
Guaraná
“Cigarette (numbs)” [sap] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
“Affects the emotions, uncommon excitement,
double vision, insomnia, aphrodisiacs” [seed] (Spix
and Martius, 1976)
No data
“Enhances the ‘strength’ of the coca”
[fruit]—Amazonian Indians
(Schultes and Raffaulf, 1990)
No data
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
341
Table 1 (Continued )
Species (family)
Vernacular name
Indications in historic literature [part utilized]
Indications by Brazilian communities
nowadays
Paullinia pinnata L.
(Sapindaceae)
Guaraná/Curuapé/
Cruapé-Vermelho
No data
Paullinia sorbilis Mart.
(Sapindaceae)
Guaraná
Piper nodosum C. DC.
(Piperaceae)
Piptadenia colubrina (Vell.)
Benth. (Fabaceae)
Psychotria ipecacuanha
(Brot.) Stokes (Rubiaceae)
No record
“Affects emotions, uncommon excitement, double
vision, insomnia, aphrodisiac” [seed] (Spix and
Martius, 1976)
“Affects the emotions, uncommon excitement,
double vision, insomnia, aphrodisiac” [seed] (Spix
and Martius, 1976)
“Combats toothache” [root] (Martius, 1939)
Paricá
“Tonic” [seed] (Martius, 1939)
Ipecacuanha
“Antidote to opium” [root] (Gomes, 1972)
Selaginella convoluta (Arn.)
Spring (Selaginellaceae)
Tachia guianensis Aubl.
(Gentianaceae)
No record
“Arouses vital forces that are dormant (analeptic)”
[whole plant] (Martius, 1939)
“Febrifuge” [root] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
Theobroma bicolor Bonpl.
(Sterculiaceae)
Theobroma cacao L.
(Sterculiaceae)
Cacau (cacao)
Theobroma microcarpum
Mart. (Sterculiaceae)
Theobroma speciosum Willd.
ex Spreng. (Sterculiaceae)a
Theobroma subincanum
Martius in Buchner
(Sterculiaceae)
Cacau (cacao)
Theobroma sylvestre Aubl. ex
Mart. in Buchner
(Sterculiaceae)
Trimezia lurida Salisb.
(Iridaceae)
Vandellia difusa L.
(Scrophulariaceae)
Zea mays L. (Poaceae)
Cacau (cacao)
py
No data
No data
Antiemetic [root] (Lorenzi and
Matos, 2002); stimulant
(snuff)—Amazonian Indians
(Cooper, 1987)
No data
co
al
Raiz-de-jacaréaru/coferana
“Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” [whole
plant] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
“Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” [whole
plant] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
on
Cacau (cacao)
“Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” [whole
plant] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
“Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” [whole
plant] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
“Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” [whole
plant] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
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Cacau (cacao)
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Cacau (cacao)
“Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” [whole
plant] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
To treat “sore stomach”
[root]—Amazonian Indians
(Schultes and Raffaulf, 1990)
No data
Osteomuscular problems
[fruit]—Amazonian river-dwellers
(Rodrigues, 2006); to treat liver
problems—Amazon Inhabitants (Van
den Berg and Silva, 1988)
No data
Diuretic, stimulant [seed] (Lorenzi
and Matos, 2002)
Hallucinogenic snuff [bark
ashes]—Indians living in the
Northwestern Amazon (Schultes,
1969)
No data
“Febrifuge” [root] (Gomes, 1972)
No data
Erva-da-mata-cana
“Febrifuge” [root] (Spix and Martius, 1976)
No data
Milho (maize)
“Inebriates” [fruit] (Martius, 1939)
Antiemetic [straw-fibers]—Terena
Indians (Carvalho, 1996); kidney
pain, measles
[straw-fibers]—Amazonian rubber
tappers (Ming, 1995)
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Manciçó
th
o
a
No data
Species that present coincidence between the uses described in historic literature and in the current ethnopharmacological studies.
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species would be of little value since the descriptive material
on these species did not contain enough information to distinguish precisely to what species the authors were referring. Thus,
of the 93 plants recorded, 39 were excluded from the present
study, because they were described by their vernacular names or
were identified on a genus level, while 54 were identified on a
species level. Of these 54 plants, 34 are native to Brazil and the
results referred in the present article are related to these species
(Tables 1 and 2).
Ethnopharmacological studies showed that only 13 of the 34
species have been recorded in modern ethnopharmacological
studies in traditional communities (Table 1). Most of the uses
reported in former centuries do not coincide with those today.
Only three cases were reported in which a use coincided as
can be noted (a ) in Table 1. Thus, Dorstenia brasiliensis Lam.
and Theobroma speciosum Willd. ex Spreng. were cited for
their febrifuge and stimulating action, respectively (Lorenzi
and Matos, 2002) and these uses were also reported in previous
centuries. Also, Erythroxylon coca Lam. has been cited as
“inebriating” in the nineteen century (Martius, 1939; Spix and
Martius, 1976), and nowadays its stimulant and narcotic effects
have been reported by Plowman (1979) and Cooper (1987),
among Amazonian Indians.
A bibliographical survey showed that up to the present time,
only eight of these 34 species were the focus of pharmacological
investigation (Table 2). Two coincidences between uses reported
342
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
Table 2
Thirty-four species native to Brazil cited in historic literature with possible uses/effects on the central nervous system, as well as their phytochemical and pharmacological studies found in present-day literature
Phytochemical data found in
present-day literature
Pharmacological
studies found in
present-day literature
Pharmacological use
in the patent
Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)
Anacardic acids, cardanols and
cardols (Trevisan et al., 2006;
Olatunji et al., 2005); steroids
(Phillips et al., 2005;
Alexander-Lindo et al., 2004);
terpenes, tannins, flavonoids and
saponins (Gonçalves et al.,
2005); carotenoids and ascorbic
acid (Assunção and Mercadante,
2003); ketones, lactones and
norisoprenoids (Bicalho et al.,
2000); tannins (Mota et al.,
1985); long-chain phenols
(Tyman et al., 1984); acylated
flavanone glycoside (Rahman et
al., 1978)
No data
Saponin, phenolic compounds
and quinazolinic alkaloids
(Campos et al., 2005); amyrines
and tocopherols (De Siqueira et
al., 2003)
No data
Antioxidant (Melo
Cavalcante et al.,
2003; Trevisan et al.,
2006);
anti-inflammatory
(Mota et al., 1985);
anti-diabetic effects
(Olatunji et al., 2005)
Antioxidant,
anti-obesity
co
al
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Anesthesic (Bedford
et al., 1984)
No data
No data
Anoretic
Ichthyotoxic (Pires,
1978)
Antioxidant (Rahmat
et al., 2004)
Antioxidant (Goel et
al., 2001); muscle
paralysis (Singh and
Dryden, 1985)
Neuronal regeneration
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Ichthyotoxic (Pires,
1978)
No data
No data
No data
No data
Antidepressant
No data
on
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Seco-adianane-type triterpenoids,
isopimarane-type diterpenoid and
coumarins (Uchiyama et al.,
2002); steroids and
furocoumarins (Kuster et al.,
1994)
No data
No data
Tropane alkaloids
(Hammerschmidt, 1999; Leete,
1983); alkaloids (Turner et al.,
1981)
Flavonoids (Freixa et al., 1998)
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Bignonia chica Humb. and Bonpl.
(Bignoniaceae)
Cecropia palmata Willd. (Cecropiaceae)
Couratari guianensis Aubl. (Lecythidaceae)
Cryptocarya pretiosa Mart. ex Nees (Lauraceae)
Dorstenia brasiliensis Lam. (Moraceae)
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Aristolochia grandiflora Sw (Aristolochiaceae)
Bertholletia excelsa Bompl. (Lecythidaceae)
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Species (family)
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Hura crepitans L. (Euphorbiaceae)
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Echites cururu Mart. (Apocynaceae)
Echites grandiflorus G. Mey. (Apocynaceae)
Erythroxylon coca Lam. (Erythroxylaceae)
Manihot utilissima Pohl (Euphorbiaceae)
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Musa sapientum L. (Musaceae)
Nicotiana langsdorffii Weinmann (Solanaceae)
Ocotea cujumary Mart. (Lauraceae)
Ocotea opifera Mart. (Lauraceae)
Paullinia cururu L. (Sapindaceae)
Paullinia pinnata L. (Sapindaceae)
Paullinia sorbilis Mart. (Sapindaceae)
Piper nodosum C. DC. (Piperaceae)
Flavonoids (Chariandy et al.,
1999; Kamil et al., 1974)
Essential oils (Pino et al., 2003;
Pannangpetch et al., 2001);
flavonoids (Lewis et al., 1999;
Pari and Maheswari, 1999);
cycloartane triterpenes (Akihisa
et al., 1998); tannins (Ali and
Bhutani, 1993); steroids (Knapp
et al., 1972)
No data
No data
Essential oils (Lorenzo et al.,
2001)
No data
Polyphenols (Zamble et al.,
2006); flavone glycosides
(Abourashed et al., 1999)
No data
No data
No data
Antidepressant
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
343
Table 2 (Continued )
Phytochemical data found in
present-day literature
Pharmacological
studies found in
present-day literature
Pharmacological use
in the patent
Piptadenia colubrina (Vell.) Benth. (Fabaceae)
Indole alkaloids (Pachter et al.,
1959)
Alkaloids (Garcia et al., 2005)
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Antidepressant
(Santos et al., 1994)
No data
No data
No data
Anti-inflammatory
(Schewe et al., 2002);
psychoactive (Melzig
et al., 2000)
Anti-inflammatory;
antioxidant; appetite
regulator
No data
No data
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Tocopherol, fatty acids, steroids
(Bruni et al., 2000, 2002)
No data
No data
No data
Terpenoids (Yan and Wang,
2006); polyamines (Moreau and
Hicks, 2005); fatty acids, primary
alcohols, diacids, omega-hydroxy
fatty acids, and 2-hydroxy fatty
acids, with omega-hydroxy fatty
acids (Schreiber et al., 2005);
phenolic acids (Fontaine et al.,
2005; Funk et al., 2005);
alkylresorcinol (Gembeh et al.,
2001); sesquiterpene
hydrocarbon (Köllner et al.,
2004); polyphenols (Del
Pozo-Insfran et al., 2006)
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Species that present coincidence between the uses described in historic literature and their effects observed in the nowadays pharmacological studies.
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a
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Theobroma microcarpum Mart. (Sterculiaceae)
Theobroma speciosum Willd. ex Spreng.
(Sterculiaceae)
Theobroma subincanum Martius in Buchner
(Sterculiaceae)
Theobroma sylvestre Aubl. ex Mart. in Buchner
(Sterculiaceae)
Trimezia lurida Salisb. (Iridaceae)
Vandellia difusa L. (Scrophulariaceae)
Zea mays L. (Poaceae)
on
al
Theobroma cacao L. (Sterculiaceae)a
Flavonoids (Carvalho et al., 1991)
Fatty acids (Jee, 1984); phenolic
acids (Torres et al., 2002)
Catechins (Gotti et al., 2006;
Kelm et al., 2006); flavonoids
(Ramiro et al., 2005; Osman et
al., 2004); flavonoids
O-glucosides and C-glucosides
(Sanchez-Rabaneda et al., 2003);
tannins (Falade et al., 2005);
essential oils (Chee et al., 2005);
alkaloids (Stark et al., 2005);
polyphenols (Edwards et al.,
2005); proanthocyanidin
glycosides (Hatano et al., 2002);
carboxylic acids, purine
alkaloids, fatty acids (Bucheli et
al., 2001)
No data
No data
co
Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes
(Rubiaceae)
Selaginella convoluta (Am.) Spring
(Selaginellaceae)a
Tachia guianensis Aubl. (Gentianaceae)
Theobroma bicolor Bonpl. (Sterculiaceae)
py
Species (family)
in historic literature and the pharmacological data described in
contemporary scientific literature were noted also in Table 2.
Selaginella convoluta (Arn.) Spring and Theobroma cacao L.
were cited in historic literature for its arousing “vital forces that
are dormant (analeptic)” (Martius, 1939) and for its “Bitter principle comparable to caffeine” (Spix and Martius, 1976), respectively (Table 1). The current pharmacological studies showed
antidepressant (Santos et al., 1994) and psychoactive (Melzig et
al., 2000) effects, respectively (Table 2).
Of the 34 species cited in the present study, only 16 were
studied from a phytochemical point of view (Table 2). The
main chemical constituents found in these plants in decreasing order were: flavonoids (eight plants), alkaloids (six),
phenolic acids (four), tannins (four) essential oils (three),
pentacyclic triterpenes (three), steroids (two) and saponins
(two).
In the survey on possible requests for patents, six species
were found to be registered (Anacardium occidentale L., Erythroxylon coca Lam., Hura crepitans L., Musa sapientum L.,
Paullinia sorbilis Mart., and Theobroma cacao L.). However,
no patent shows any coincidence in plant use and the possible
effects described in historic literature (Tables 1 and 2).
344
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
No information was found concerning medication registered
in Brazil and developed as from these plants.
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rs
This study presents data that allows us to verify not only
ethnopharmacological data but also social and cultural aspects
of Brazilian cultures of the past century, in compliance with
a recent ethnopharmacological concept as a transdisciplinary
exploration that spans the biological and social sciences (Etkin
and Elisabetsky, 2005).
Some limitations must be considered in spite of the careful
survey. For instance, use of a scientific name as a key word in
databases will not bring results if the orthography of the scientific
name published has been subject to alteration. Also, it was not
checked on all the botanic synonyms in this survey. Finally,
maybe not all Brazilian studies have been consulted as desired,
since most of them have been published in periodic not indexed.
From the ethnopharmacological point of view, the results
showed the different paths traveled by plants over the course
of history, confirming the hypothesis that some of them were
used for the same purposes for centuries (Dorstenia brasiliensis Lam.; Erythroxylon coca Lam. and Theobroma speciosum
Willd. ex Spreng.). For others, uses were modified, as can be
observed in the recent ethnopharmacological studies described
in Table 1 (Anacardium occidentale L.; Bertholletia excelsa
Bompl.; Bignonia chica Humb. and Bonpl.; Hura crepitans L.;
Ocotea opifera Mart.; Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes;
Tachia guianensis Aubl.; Theobroma cacao L.; Theobroma
subincanum Martius in Buchner and Zea mays L.). In other
cases, uses were completely forgotten in the course of time (Aristolochia grandiflora Sw; Cecropia palmata Willd.; Couratari
guianensis Aubl.; Cryptocarya pretiosa Mart., ex Nees; Echites
cururu Mart.; Echites grandiflorus G. Mey.; Manihot utilissima
Pohl; Musa sapientum L.; Nicotiana langsdorffii Weinmann;
Ocotea cujumary Mart.; Paullinia cururu L.; Paullinia pinnata
L.; Paullinia sorbilis Mart.; Piper nodosum C. DC.; Piptadenia
colubrina (Vell.) Benth.; Selaginella convoluta (Arn.) Spring;
Theobroma bicolor Bonpl.; Theobroma microcarpum Mart.;
Theobroma seylvestre Aubl. ex Mart. in Buchner; Trimezia
lurida Salisb. and Vandellia difusa L.).
From the phytochemical point of view, the most recurrent chemical constituents in the plants under study were the
flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic acids, tannins and essential oils.
As has been reported in several articles, these substances exert
activity on the CNS. Some flavonoids present anticonvulsive and
sedative effects (Dos Santos et al., 2005; Fernandez et al., 2004),
have the effect of protecting against neurodegeneration of the
CNS (Nagase et al., 2005; Heitzman et al., 2005; Marder et al.,
2003) and antidepressant activity (Juergenliemk et al., 2003).
Many tannins showed an anticonvulsive effect (Dos Santos et
al., 2005). Pentacyclic triterpenes also presented activity on the
CNS (Heitzman et al., 2005). Alkaloids of the matrine type
exert an antinociceptive effect through many mechanisms of
action (Yin and Zhu, 2005), such as an increase in activation of
the cholinergic system (Breining, 2004). Alkaloids thus possess
pharmacological activity and may be relevant in the treatment
py
4. Discussion
of cognitive disorders, including an increase in the cholinergic
function in the CNS (Howes and Houghton, 2003).
Phenolic compounds protect neurons from oxidative stress
(Scapagnini et al., 2004). Aromatic plants possess high concentrations of essential oils and are utilized in the treatment of
diseases related to the CNS, common in tropical regions (Freire
et al., 2006; Ozturk et al., 2002).
The reduced number of pharmacological studies found for
the species surveyed shows that they obviously did not focus
on medicinal plants cited in historic literature. Hopefully this
article contributes to a new appreciation of such historical documents, since researches which reinstate historic medicinal uses
of plants are rare or difficult to carry through (because of difficult access to books), so that few species have been the subject
of investigation up to the present time. The main difficulty concerns to the lack of a location which concentrates these books
or even information about them, since they are dispersed in
few museums and other institutions; often in bad conditions of
conservation. Also, sometimes they are only available as microfilms, and usually are contaminated by fungus, jeopardizing the
reading. A wider search has been conduced by the authors in
other Brazilian cities, in order to verify the general conditions
of the historic literature deposited in Institutions outside Sao
Paulo.
Only six species were found to have a registered patent in
the patent database consulted (Table 2). With the exception of
Paullinia sorbilis Mart., all five other plants have been studied
from a pharmacological point of view. Paullinia sorbilis Mart.
was also the only species related to the CNS with a patent registered in Brazil (INPI, 2005); all others have been patented in the
United States or in Europe. In Brazil, only methods or inventions
are patentable—not species and their constituents. When a substance is isolated, or effects of one particular species reported,
this register can only be made outside Brazil, in countries that
accept this type of patent. Many species are taken to other countries and studied in foreign laboratories. These two facts may
explain the number of patents of Brazilian species registered
in international offices and the absence of patents for Brazilian
species in the country.
The fact that no records have been found of medications in
Brazil for the species under study comes as no surprise. With
the exception of one phytomedicine registered by ANVISA in
2004, Acheflan® , Brazil does not possess any registered phytomedicine derived from Brazilian resources. This is due to
several reasons, ranging from the lack of financial incentive
from the government for the study of natural products, to the
recent difficulties in the Brazilian legislation concerning the
study of medicinal plants. Some of these obstacles have been
reverted over the last years. Firstly, through incentive provided
by university-business company partnerships, financing widescale projects and training groups of professionals of great
importance to Brazil (Rodrigues, 2005). Secondly, registration
of one particular phytomedicine takes years to pass all of the
pre-clinical and clinical pharmacological tests. For such, the
phytomedicine would have to show its pharmacological safety
and effectiveness – in itself, not a very simple matter – since
many studies are not carried through because the species do not
M. Giorgetti et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 (2007) 338–347
present the desired pharmacological effect in the first pharmacological tests.
5. Conclusion
co
Acknowledgements
al
Our grateful acknowledgements to FAPESP for financial support, to Dr. E.A. Carlini for all his support and guidance, to Dr.
Amélia Vera Guimarães de Sousa for her support, and to Dr.
Zuleika Ribeiro do Valle, for kindly lending us the books used
in this study.
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on
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