Early holocene lithic projectile
points from the Amazon
Klaus Hilbert1
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364
Abstract
The main purpose of this paper is to discuss briefly models about early peopling of the Amazon and
the use of bifacial points as diagnostic artifacts to define pre-ceramic archaeological cultures.
Key-words: early Holocene hunter-gatherer, Amazon, projectile points.
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Until some years ago, material evidence related to the late Pleistocene and early Holocene huntergatherer societies were limited to few lithic projectile points: eight were found in the lower and middle
Tapajós River, (Katzer 1909:39; Simões, 1976:5-6; Hilbert, 1986:3125, MPEG, 1986:115, 117; Prous,
1991:431; Roosevelt, 1996:373); two originated from the Xingú River (Coudreau, 1977:68); two from
the Cotijuba island in the proximities of Belém, the capital of Pará State located at the mouth of the
Amazon; and one from a site near Manaus the capital of the Amazonas State. Except for the specimen
found in context at the Dona Stella site and dated 8,000 B.P., which was found in 2003 by researches
from the University of the State of São Paulo (USP) during a project directed by Eduardo Goes Neves,
all the projectile points presented here were donated in the 1950s and 1960s to the archaeological
collection of the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi.
Besides these points mentioned above, others are known from British Guiana. Evans and Meggers
(1960:21) published four examples and mentioned others that belong to the collection of the Museum of
British Guiana. One projectile point is known from the Ireng River and three from the Cuyuni, province of
Essequibo. The archaeological context of all these points is unknown. They were found by local residents
and donated to the museums, which kept them from disappearing in some obscure private collection.
There have been a number of explanations for the reduced number of Amazonian archaeological sites
with pre-ceramic occupations. Some scholars blame the dense vegetation of the tropical forest, which
makes systematic field research difficult, and the lack of adequate raw material for the manufacture of
flaked artifacts (Evans and Meggers, 1960:21; Simões, 1976:2). Others refer to the low archaeological
visibility of hunter-gather camp-sites and the use of tools made of wood or bone, which rapidly
disintegrates because of the tropical climatic conditions (Hilbert, 1968:255). Still others suggest that the
archaeological sites located in the flood plain were eroded or covered underneath the fluvial deposits,
which makes them inaccessible for any research (Prous, 1991:430). But, agreeing with Roosevelt
(1996:375) the principal motive for the limited number of known sites is the lack of research and scientific
attention until recent years. The vast majority of the archaeological sites, mainly those from the flood
plains of the Amazon River and its tributaries (várzea), are habitation sites of ceramic cultures that always
attracted the attention of researchers. The knowledge of the lithic industry, however, is reduced to artistic
and ritual objects or polished artifacts, such as spindles or ax blades. Evidences for a late Pleistocene
or early Holocene occupation are comparatively rare.
One very interesting account about projectile points is known from the Brazilian naturalist Alexandre
Rodrigues Ferreira. He found, during his studies at the Rio Negro in 1783 in São Felipe (Içana) near the
Uaupés River, some projectile points, which he attributed to an ancient population. Unfortunately most of
his archaeological and ethnographic collection disappeared during the occupation of Portugal in the
Napoleonic war (Wassén, 1970), so we are unsure whether Ferreira observed lithic bifacial points or
some stone flakes, frequently used by the indigenous population of the area as projectile points (Ferreira,
1885:188). The observations made by Ferreira and his interpretations; however, show that he made a
direct connection between ancient and actual societies suggesting a historical and cultural continuity in
the process of the peopling of the Amazon.
In contrast to Figueira, the French explorer Henri Coudreau (1977:68) reported finding a big bifacial
point in his accounts of an expedition to the Xingú River in 1896. He didn’t connect this find to any
prehistoric or contemporary group from the Amazon, but he did interpret his artifact as an exotic
element that originated from the southern part of the continent, suggesting a southern migration
route for the peopling of the Amazon.
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The German geologist Friedrich Katzer (1909:39) presented, in an ethnographic publication, three bifacial
points without a stem, together with polished axe blades from the Cupary river, in lower Tapajós River.
He donated these artifacts to the ethnographic collection of the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi in Belém,
identifying them as being from the Mundurukú tribe. Katzer didn’t even take into consideration the possibility
that these points could be from a prehistoric period. On the contrary, he made a direct affiliation between
archaeological material culture and the ethnic group who occupied the area at the time of his stay.
Although Katzer was doing geological research, he did not consider that the Amazonian groups could
have been living in the region for a long period.
Mário Simões (1976) pubished two bifacial points from the middle Tapajós River. Despite the lack of
material evidence, the wide dispersion of the sites, the visible differences in form and shape of these
artifacts and the complete absence of an archaeological context, Simões uses these tools as diagnostic
types, defining archaeological cultures and chronologies. But without an exact knowledge of the
archaeological contexts and the conditions under which these artifacts were found, those points only
document the existence of a category of lithic instruments and not necessarily the actual presence of a
specific hunter-gatherer group such as Paleoindian.
To prove an early Holocene peopling of the Amazon, new research strategies must be applied. The
hunter-gather sites must be found and systematically excavated. But the search for open-air sites in the
tropical forest is a difficult task. The difficulty in studying the camp-sites of early Holocene hunter-gather
societies inside the tropical Amazon induced many researchers to look for rock shelters and caves as
potential paleoindian sites (Prous, 1991:430). This is certainly a promising strategy since the conditions
of preservation are better and the visibility greater. The majority of sites dated in the late Pleistocene and
early Holocene period are cave-sites such as the “Abrigo do Sol” with a C 14 date of 14,700±195 B. P.,
“Gruta do Gavião” at the “Serra do Carajás” with a date of 8,140±130 B. P., and the “Caverna da Pedra
Pintada” located in the Monte Alegre region with dates around 11,145±135 B. P.
The archaeological site of “Abrigo do Sol” (MT-GU-1), located along the eastern slopes of the
“Chapada do Parisis” near the Guaporé River, State of Mato Grosso, was excavated by Eurico
Miller in 1977 (Miller, 1987:41). As part of the PROPA project (Paleoindian Project), Miller observed
two different geo-stratigraphic units. The first unit, until a depth of 4.3 meters, is formed by a sandy,
light gray soil with a few small fragments of sandstone. In the upper part of this unit, potsherds and
lithic artifacts made from basalt and sandstone were found. One C 14 date of 7,970±75 B. P. (Si3475) was taken from this level. The second stratigraphic unit was excavated until a depth of 8
meters, without reaching the bed rock of the rock shelter. In the transition of the two stratigraphic
units, Miller observed a paleosoil that was dated between 8,930±100 B. P. (Si 3736) and 10,600±130
B. P. (N-3223). From the segment right below this paleosoil, between 5.4 and 5.5 meters, Miller
recovered from a gray colored sandy sediment, two charcoal samples, which were dated to 11,800±
B. P. (N-3226) and 12,300±95 B. P. (Si-3477). Two more charcoal samples date the transition
layers of this grayish soil to light gray sediment between 14,470±450 B. P. (Si-3738) and 14,700±195
B. P. (N-2359). The lithic artifacts found in this second stratigraphic unit were made from local basalt
and a metamorphic quartzite. Artifacts in basalt represent the majority of this industry. Less frequent
are specimens made in quartz and chalcedony. Retouched instruments are extremely rare but the
identified tools consist of simple scrapers, flakes with use-marks, and hammer stones.
The “Gruta do Gavião” site was discovered in the mid 1980s during the archaeological rescue-project of
the “Serra do Carajás” directed by researchers of the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi (Lopes, 1985;
Lopes et al, 1985; Simões, 1986; Hilbert 1989; Magalhães, 1989, 1993, 1994). Two geo-stratigraphic
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units, corresponding to two different occupation periods, were differentiated. The first, which extend
down to approximately 10 centimeters, contained potsherds on the surface and flaked lithic material in
the context of fire places, which provided the samples for one C14 date of 2,900±90 B. P. The second
unit extended to about 35 centimeters in depth and had a large quantity of flaked material and an
associated C 14 date of 8,140±130 B. P. Among the ceramic artifacts, small global-shaped cooking
pots dominate and are decorated with simple linear incisions along the rim. The lithic industry of the
preceramic unit is based on hyaline quartz crystals, amethyst, and citrine. The crystals were exclusively
flaked in the bipolar technique. Among the few retouched instruments, end- and lateral-scrapers are
dominant. No bifacial projectile points or other bifacial instruments were found. Besides the lithic and
ceramic artifacts, organic material was observed in the top layers of the second stratigraphic unit that
included charred animal bones, bark, leaves and seeds, which reveal important aspects of the huntergatherers of the “Serra do Carajás” and their habits of food-processing (Imasio, 1994).
The cave and rock shelters in the sandstone complex of Monte Alegre have been known since the 19th
century (Wallace, 1889; Hartt 1898; Katzer, 1903, Consens, 1989). As part of her Lower Amazon research
project, Ana Roosevelt (1996) excavated part of the “Pedra Pintada” cave. She defined four geoarchaeological units, divided into twenty different geo-stratigraphic layers. The first unit, within 65
centimeters, belongs to a sequence of three occupations that contained ceramic. The most recent
occupation is related to the “Incised-punctated” cultural horizon. The second correspond to the Aroxí
culture of the formative cultural period, which is dated between 3,230 and 4,000 B. P. Along with the
ceramic fragments, Roosevelt found evidence of manioc cultivation. The oldest occupation with ceramic
evidence is dated by C14 to 7,500 B.P. and by thermoluminescence to 4,710±375 B. P. and corresponds
to the local Paituna culture. The vessels are globular in shape, sand tempered, and decorated with
simple incisions and deep punctations.
The next unit has a depth of 30 centimeters and was archaeologically sterile. The units attributed to
a paleoindian occupation is divided into two layers: the first is characterized by a grayish sand,
between 5 and 20 centimeters thick, and the other, inferior layer is composed of blackish sand,
measuring between 10 and 25 centimeters. Four different paleoindian periods were defined, based
on typological and technical criteria of the lithic material. The dominant raw material (about 30,000
fragments) used by the paleoindian knapper is chalcedony and quartz. Among the few instruments
found in this unit, ten show bifacial modification and fourteen artifacts show unifacial retouch. The C
14 dates oscillate between 11,145±135 B. P. (GX17413) and 10,000±60 B. P. (GX19539CAMS).
The rock paintings that cover part of the cave are attributed to the paleoindian occupation called by
the researchers as “Monte Alegre culture.”
The last geo-stratigraphic unit starts at about 50 centimeters and is composed of sand and rocks, which
fell from the roof of the cave. In this last unit no archaeological evidence was found.
With more than fifty C 14 dates and several detailed analyses of the organic material, Roosevelt presents
a large quantity of data and for the first time it is possible to reconstruct, in a more detailed manner, a
paleoindian culture of the Amazon.
The following is a description of the bifacial projectile points found in the Amazon area.
Point 1: It is a long triangular point made of a dark green quartzite with a small tapered shoulder.
The tip and the small stem have broken off. The blade edges show a continuous, regular and alternated
retouched sequence. The façonnage flaking scars are relatively big, and rarely go beyond the center of
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the artifact. In cross section, this flaking technique gives the point a massive oval shape. The stem was
shaped by two profound notches without secondary retouch. This artifact was found, together with point
number 2, and donated to the archaeological collection of The Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi in 1977.This
point was found at the “Fazenda do Arruda” at the Cotijuba Island. (Length: 71mm, width: 28mm, thickness:
11mm, weight: 22g.).
Point 2: The long triangular bifacial point was made of a dark brown flint with grey blots, probably
caused by secondary fire. The point is fractured at the tip, at the stem and on one barb. The edges show
a regular reciprocal retouch on both the ventral and dorsal side. The façonnage flaking is random and
surpasses the medial portion of the surface. Just like on the point number 1, deep notches form the small
pointed stem. A slight inside curving of the edges might be the result of resharpening of the point while it
was hafted. This artifact was found together with the specimen number 1 at the “Fazenda do Arruda” at
the Cotijuba Island near the town of Belém. (Length: 61mm, width: 34mm, thickness: 9mm, weight: 16g.).
Point 3: A small bifacial artifact made of brown flint, classified as projectile point in the collection of
the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. This artifact was found on a beach of the Tapajós River near the
town of Santarém.
Point 4: This huge bifacial stemmed point was made of flint. The surface was eroded by water and
there has been some color change. The stem is comparatively short with regular lateral retouches and is
fluted on both sides. The façonnage flaking is collateral and involving. The cross section is without a
medial ridge. The lateral edge shows a slight irregular retouch, composed of short scars on both surfaces.
Henri Coudreau found this point in 1896, together with other objects inside an abandoned habitation of
the Jurúna Indians on the Xingú River near the rapids of “Cachoeira Comprida”. The dark coloration
indicates that it was submerged in water for a long time. It is quite possible that the Jurúna found this
point inside the river but left it behind, together with some other wooden sculptures and “toys”. (Length:
174mm, width: 58mm, thickness: 10mm).
Point 5: The large triangular point without stem was made out of dark brown flint. The surface is
eroded and a deep patina can be observed. The base of the point is concave with invasive façonnage
flakes, like fluting flakes on both sides, and small basal trimming flakes. The lateral modifications are
carefully made. A sequence of an alternate retouch technique creates a slight undulation along the edge
of the blade, which makes the artifact more effective. The point was found during gold mining activities in
the “Gruta da Filomena” near the town of São Felix on the Xingú River and donated to the collection of
the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi in 1985. (Length: 66mm, width: 38mm, thickness: 6mm, weight:
15g.).
Point 6: This triangular stemmed point was manufactured in a light brown flint. The stem is relatively
small and carefully retouched, the barbs are slightly pointed and inversely tapered and in line with the
edge blade, which are carefully finished with a regular retouch. The façonnage flakes are random and
invasive crossing over to the other edge. The stem is separated from the shoulder by a short and abrupt
notching. This artifact was found in the gravel of a cassiterite (tinstone) mining, located on the Tucano
River, one of the tributary rivers of the Tapajós. A group of geologists, who worked for the “Instituto de
Desenvolvimento Econômico e social do Pará” bought this point from a local miner in 1967 and donated
it to the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. (Length: 86mm, width: 40mm, thickness: 7mm, weight: 19g).
Point 7: This bifacial triangular stemmed point was made in hyaline quartz. Regular and well
controlled modifications form a short and pointed stem and large symmetric inversely tapered barbs.
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The façonnage flaking are irregular, transposing the central portion of the artifact’s surface, while the
lateral retouches form an alternate sequence between the ventral and dorsal faces. These final retouches
are short and abrupt. Father Francisco Angélico Milliert donated this beautiful point to the Museu Paraense
Emílio Goeldi in 1958. According to his account, the artifact was found on the left margin of the Tapajós
River, on a beach near the “Chacorão” rapids. (Length: 64mm, width: 48mm, thickness: 10mm, weight:
26g).
Point 8: The leaf-shaped point was made in milky colored quartz. The bifacial façonnage flaking is
quite irregular as is the lateral retouching. The manufacturing traces show little control of the gesture
during the flaking process. The final retouch occurred mainly on the ventral surface, while the dorsal
surface was modified with a series of short and abrupt negatives. In this manner the blade edge has an
irregular and unfinished aspect, which can influence the function of this point, suggesting that it might
have been used for cutting. This artifact was found, together with the point number 9, by the end of the
1950s on the Mission of the Carurú River, tributary of the Tapajós River. The Franciscan monk Alberto
Kruse, head of the mission, donated this point to Peter Paul Hilbert (Length: 60mm, width: 35mm,
thickness: 12mm, weight: 21g).
Point 9: This leaf shaped point, manufactured from a brown flint, has a regular lateral retouch
predominantly orientated on the ventral face of the artifact, while the basal trimming flakes, on the contrary,
are orientated on the dorsal face. Some of the hinges and fractures on the central portion of the artifact
show signs of polish, probably to facilitate hafting. The short and irregular negatives on the blade edge
are possible sign of a resharpening. This artifact was found, together with the specimen number 8, near
the end of the 1950s in the mission of the Cururú River, tributary of the Tapajós River by the Franciscan
monk Alberto Kruse. (Length: 50mm, width: 26mm, thickness: 8mm, weight: 9g).
Final considerations
The archaeological data presented here demonstrates the little that is known about the peopling of
the Amazon region. We have less than twenty projectile points for the whole Amazonian region, all
but one without any archaeological context. The points are of different forms, shapes and sizes, and
are found in diverse places between the flood plains (várzea), Ferra Firme and the Planalto Central
of Brazil. Only during the last fifteen years have we been able to add some important new data
obtained from systematic excavations in caves and rock shelters. We mentioned the “Abrigo do
Sol” from the state of Mato Grosso, the “Gruta do Gavião” located at the Serra do Carajás and the
cave of “Pedra Pintada near Monte Alegre in the State of Pará. Unfortunately, the data we have at
our disposal are from preliminary notes and research reports only.
Despite the limited evidence, Simões (1976) suggests, based only on projectile points, an early peopling
of the Amazon by a paleoindian culture. Roosevelt (1996) supports this model by using these artifacts as
diagnostic types and correlating them chronologically with the crude bifacial artifacts she has found at
“Pedra Pintada”. She constructs, in this way, a new archaeological context for these scattered points.
But these points show a large techno-typological diversity and great spatial distribution. These points
could belong to any number of other archaeological cultural contexts from other regions. In regards to the
lithic material of the “Pedra Pintada” cave presented by Roosevelt (1996:378), our impression is that the
artifacts show a greater similarity to the lithic industry from the Itaparica cultural tradition, known from the
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Central Brazil area, than to any of the bifacial industries shown here and known from other regions of
central and south Brazil. (Schmitz, 1987a, 1987b; Prous, 1991).
We believe that the lack of a systematic research of the early peopling of the Amazon area is evident.
The reanalysis and the publication of already excavated material cultures and stratigraphic data from
sites such as the “Gruta do Gavião” or “Abrigo do Sol” rock shelters could contribute to a more solid
discussion about the early peopling if the Amazon.
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Localization of the archaeological sites:
1. Cachoeira do Chacorão, rio Tapajós (PA), MPEG, cat.: 1273.
2. Gruta do Caçaba, garimpo Maloquinha, rio Tapajós (PA), MPEG, cat.: 1491
3. Carreira Comprida, rio Xingú (PA), MPEG, cat.: 5548.
4. Garimpo do Cica, São Félix do Xingú (PA), cat.: 2479.
5. Missão do rio Cururú, rio Tapajós (PA), (Hilbert, 1986, p. 3125).
6. Praia de Santarém (PA), MPEG, cat.: 1490.
7. Fazenda do Arruda, Ilha de Cotijuba (PA), MPEG, cat.: 1901.
8. Fazenda do Arruda, Ilha de Cotijuba (PA), MPEG, cat.: 1902.
9. Caverna da Pedra Pintada, Monte Alegre (PA), (Roosevelt, 1996).
10. Ireng River, Rupununi District, Guiana, (Evans; Meggers, 1960).
11. Cuyuni River, Mazuruni District, Guiana, (Evans; Meggers, 1960).
12. Abrigo do Sol (MT-GU-1), (Miller, 1987).
13. Gruta do Gavião (PA-AT-69), (Simões, 1986; Hilbert, 1989; Magalhães, 1993).
14. Missão do rio Cururú, rio Tapajós (PA), (Hilbert, 1986, p. 3125).
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Footnotes
1
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Departamento de História. [email protected]
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